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Ruediger Klein,2,
and Benjamin G. Neel1*
Cancer Biology Program, Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel-Deaconess Medical Center, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115,1 Developmental Biology Program, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany2
Received 6 November 2001/ Returned for modification 7 January 2002/ Accepted 14 March 2002
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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Gab1 (Grb2-associated binder 1) is a member of a small group of scaffolding adapters that includes Drosophila melanogaster Dos (Daughter of Sevenless) and mammalian Gab2 and Gab3 (8-10, 25, 30, 47; H. Keilhack, H. Gu, and B. G. Neel, unpublished data). These proteins contain an amino-terminal PH domain, several proline-rich sequences, and multiple binding sites for SH2 domain-containing proteins. Upon stimulation of appropriate cells with any of a number of RTK ligands, including epidermal growth factor (EGF), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), and insulin or insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), Gab1 rapidly becomes tyrosyl phosphorylated (10, 11, 25, 44). Tyrosyl-phosphorylated Gab1 binds multiple signal relay molecules, including the p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K) (p85), Shc, Grb2, and the protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) Shp2 (10, 11, 25, 41, 44). Gab1 is required for signaling by several RTKs, as Gab1-deficient mice die in utero (at E12.5 to E17.5) with phenotypes similar to those observed for mice defective in signaling by HGF, PDGF, or EGF (14, 34). Moreover, primary fibroblasts from Gab1-/- embryos exhibit decreased activation of the Erk mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in response to EGF, PDGF, and HGF.
To understand how Gab1 participates in RTK signaling, the functions of individual Gab1-signal relay molecule interactions and how these interactions affect each other must be elucidated. Several lines of evidence indicate that Gab1 acts via Shp2 to control Erk activation. Mutants of Gab1 (20) or receptor-Gab1 chimeras (36) that lack Shp2 binding sites are unable to cause either Erk activation or morphogenesis in MDCK cells. In addition, overexpression of deletion or point mutants of Gab1 lacking Shp2 binding blocks EGF-stimulated Erk activation in transient-transfection systems (2, 3). Furthermore, dominant-negative (PTP-inactive) mutants of Shp2 block Erk activation in response to stimulation by a wide variety of growth factors (4, 24), many of which signal through Gab1, and Shp2 mutant fibroblasts exhibit defective Erk activation in response to most of these growth factors (35, 38, 39). Although Shp2 appears to act upstream of Ras in regulating Erk activation (26, 39), its precise target in this pathway remains unknown. Conceivably, Shp2 might regulate the phosphorylation of Gab1 or a Gab1 binding protein. However, total Gab1 tyrosyl phosphorylation is unaffected in Shp2 mutant fibroblasts (39), arguing that, if Shp2 dephosphorylates Gab1, it must target specific (and a limited number of) sites.
The Gab1-p85 interaction appears to play a distinct but nonetheless important role in RTK signaling, as it is critical for PI3K activation in response to stimulation of the NGF receptor TrkA (11) and the EGF receptor (EGFR) (31). Schlessinger and colleagues proposed a positive feedback loop model involving Gab1 and PI3K in EGFR signaling (31). Initial recruitment of Gab1 by the EGFR is mediated by two EGFR tyrosyl residues (Y1068 and Y1086) and the proline-rich Met binding domain on Gab1. This results in Gab1 tyrosyl phosphorylation and PI3K association which, in turn, catalyze local production of PI3,4,5P3 (PIP3). PIP3 binds to the Gab1 PH domain, increasing the recruitment of Gab1 to the plasma membrane and leading to a further increase in Gab1 tyrosyl phosphorylation and PI3K activation. This positive feedback loop may be required to generate a PI3K signal that is sustained sufficiently to elicit biological effects. Analogous pathways could exist for other RTKs that signal via Gab1.
This positive feedback model raises the obvious question of how PI3K signaling is terminated. Here, we show that, in addition to its role in Gab1-mediated Erk activation, Shp2 attenuates PI3K activation by controlling the phosphorylation of the p85 binding sites on Gab1 in response to EGF. Interestingly, this regulatory mechanism is RTK specific: PI3K activation in response to other growth factors is unaffected or potentiated by Shp2. Our results show that scaffolding adapters, such as Gab1, in concert with PTPs such as Shp2, can control the kinetics, extent, and location of PI3K activation in response to specific growth factors.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Shp2 mammalian expression constructs were a gift from Christiane R. Maroun and Morag Park (McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada). Protein A and protein G-Sepharose were purchased from Pharmacia Biotech (Uppsala, Sweden).
Cell lines and culture.
3T3-immortalized fibroblast lines from Shp2 exon 3-/- (Shp246-110) and littermate WT mice were described previously (27) and were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U of penicillin/ml, and 100 µg of streptomycin/ml. To stably restore Shp2 expression to the Shp2 mutant cells, full-length Shp2 cDNA (6) was inserted into the retroviral plasmid pBabe-puro (22). Phoenix-Ecotropic packaging cells (a gift of Garry P. Nolan, Stanford University School of Medicine) were transiently transfected with the Shp2 retroviral construct. After 24 h, viral supernatants were collected and used to infect Shp2-/- cells in the presence of Polybrene (4 µg/ml) for 2 h. Cells were allowed to recover in normal medium (see above) for 24 h and then selected with puromycin (2 µg/ml). Puromycin-resistant clones were pooled, and Shp2 expression was assessed by immunoblotting.
A tetracycline-inducible NIH 3T3 cell line that expresses catalytically inactive, HA-tagged Shp2 was established in this laboratory by transfecting parental NIH 3T3 cells stably expressing the tetracycline transactivator tTA (40) with HA-tagged Shp2 C459S (C/S) in the vector pTet-Splice (Life Technologies, Inc.). Cells were maintained in the same growth medium as above plus tetracycline (2 µg/ml) and puromycin (2 µg/ml). Expression of Shp2 (C/S) protein was very low in the presence of tetracycline; removal of tetracycline from the growth medium resulted in expression of Shp2 (C/S) protein at about twice the level of the endogenous WT Shp2 (see Fig. 3).
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Shp2 expression constructs (10 µg) were carried out by the calcium phosphate method. For all growth factor stimulation experiments, cells were first starved for 24 h in DMEM containing 0.2% fetal calf serum and then either exposed to the appropriate growth factor (50 ng of EGF/ml, 50 ng of PDGF/ml, or 40 ng of IGF-1/ml) for various times or left unstimulated.
Immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting. Control or growth factor-stimulated cells were lysed for 40 min at 4°C with Triton lysis buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl [pH 7.5], 150 mM NaCl, 1% Triton X-100, 1 mM EDTA, 10 mM NaF, 20 mM ß-glycerophosphate, 1 mM Na3VO4, 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 10 µg of aprotinin/ml, 10 µg of leupeptin/ml, 0.5 µg of antipain/ml, and 0.5 µg of pepstatin/ml). Cellular debris was removed by centrifugation at 10,000 x g for 5 min at 4°C, and lysates (1 mg of total protein) were incubated with the indicated antibodies for 2 h at 4°C; collected on protein A or protein G-Sepharose; and washed twice with 1 ml of lysis buffer, twice with 1 ml of high-salt (0.5 M NaCl) lysis buffer, and twice more with lysis buffer. Immunoprecipitates were resolved by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes, and probed with the appropriate primary antibodies, followed by secondary sheep anti-mouse, donkey anti-rabbit, or protein A conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (1:4,000; Amersham, Little Chalfont, United Kingdom), as indicated. Commercial antibodies were used at the concentrations recommended by their manufacturers. Anti-Gab1 immunoprecipitations utilized 2 µg of antibody/1 mg of total cell extracts. For p85 immunoblotting, anti-p85 antibodies were used at 1:1,000. Immunoreactive bands were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) (Amersham).
Far-Western blots. GST-p85-N-SH2 was purified on glutathione-agarose beads, as described previously (5). Gab1 immunoprecipitates from control or EGF-stimulated cell lysates were resolved by SDS-PAGE, transferred to PVDF membranes, and incubated for 3 h with GST-p85-N-SH2 (1 µg/ml), followed by anti-GST antibodies (1:1,000). Blots were washed and incubated for 2 h with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated donkey anti-rabbit antibodies (1:4,000), and signals were detected by ECL.
Akt assays.
Lysates from EGF-stimulated WT or Shp2-/- cells were subjected to immunoprecipitation with anti-total Akt antibodies (2 µg), as described above, followed by two additional washes with 1 ml of kinase buffer (20 mM HEPES [pH 7.6], 2 mM dithiothreitol, 20 mM MgCl2, 20 mM MnCl2, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM NaF, 20 mM ß-glycerophosphate, and 0.1 mM Na3VO4). Kinase reactions were performed at 30°C for 45 min in 20 µl of kinase buffer supplemented with 10 µCi of [
-32P]ATP, 50 µM ATP, and 1 µg of purified GST-GSK-3ß as substrate. Reactions were terminated by the addition of SDS-PAGE sample buffer (20 µl), and reaction mixtures were boiled for 5 min, resolved by SDS-PAGE, and visualized by autoradiography.
PI3K assays.
Anti-Gab1 immunoprecipitates, prepared as described above, were washed an additional two times with 10 mM HEPES (pH 7.0)-0.5 M LiCl and twice with 10 mM HEPES (pH 7.0). Washed immunoprecipitates were subjected to a PI3K assay using crude brain lipids as substrate as described previously (33). Products were resolved by thin-layer chromatography. Phosphatidylserine and PI4,5P2 were phosphorylated by active p110 produced in Sf9 cells (a gift of Lewis C. Cantley) in the presence of [-32P]ATP and used as markers.
Immunofluorescence microscopy. Cells grown on glass coverslips were transfected with GFP-Gab1 expression vector with Lipofectamine (Gibco BRL), according to the manufacturer's instructions. After 24 h, cells were starved overnight in DMEM containing 0.2% fetal calf serum. Forty-eight hours posttransfection, cells were left untreated or stimulated with EGF and were fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline for 30 min at room temperature. GFP fusion proteins were visualized by conventional fluorescence microscopy.
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RESULTS |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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46-110) and WT controls. Exon 3-deletion (hereafter, Shp2-/-) fibroblasts express small amounts of a truncated protein that lacks the N-terminal SH2 domain of Shp2. Although this protein has increased catalytic activity (29), it does not localize appropriately to activated receptors (35, 39) and, in all cases examined thus far, appears to behave as a hypomorphic mutant (27, 35, 38, 39, 46; W. Yang, L. Klaman, B. Chen, S. M. Thomas, E. George, and B. G. Neel, unpublished data). WT and Shp2-/- cells were starved and then stimulated with EGF or left unstimulated, and Gab1 immunoprecipitates were resolved by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotted with anti-Shc, anti-Grb2, and anti-p85 antibodies, respectively. As expected, there was an increase in the association of Gab1 with each of these signal relay molecules following EGF stimulation. Compared to WT cells, there was no difference in the amount of Gab1-associated Shc and possibly a small decrease in Gab1-associated Grb2 in Shp2-/- cells (Fig. 1A); notably, reprobing the same membrane with anti-Gab1 antibodies showed that similar amounts of Gab1 were recovered in each of these lanes. In contrast, EGF-induced association of p85 with Gab1 was enhanced markedly in Shp2-/- cells (Fig. 1B). Consistent with previous studies (39), there was no effect of the Shp2 mutation on either total EGFR or total Gab1 tyrosyl phosphorylation in response to EGF stimulation (Fig. 1C). Taken together, these results suggest that Shp2 negatively regulates EGF-induced Gab1-p85 association.
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We also examined the effect of mutating the Shp2 binding sites on Gab1 on Gab1-p85 association. For these studies, 293 cells were transfected transiently with constructs that direct expression of either HA-tagged WT Gab1 or an HA-tagged Gab1 mutant in which the Shp2 binding sites have been mutated (HA-Gab1Shp2). As shown in Fig. 3D, loss of Shp2 binding led to increased association of p85 with Gab1 following EGF stimulation. Thus, our results show that Shp2 and, in particular, Shp2 catalytic activity negatively regulate p85 binding to Gab1 and thereby PI3K activation in response to EGF. Moreover, this regulation appears to be mediated by Shp2 that is bound to Gab1.
Shp2 regulates p85 binding sites on Gab1 in response to EGF. The increase in p85 binding to Gab1 in Shp2-/- cells could be due to an effect of Shp2 directly on Gab1 binding sites for p85 or an indirect effect of Shp2 on p85 (or conceivably some other protein that regulates p85 association with Gab1). There are three potential binding sites for p85 on Gab1 (Tyr-447, -472, and -589) (11). If Shp2 specifically dephosphorylates Gab1 p85 binding sites, then the phosphorylation of one or more of these sites should be increased in Shp2-/- cells compared to that in WT cells following EGF stimulation. Phosphospecific antibodies to these sites are not available. Instead, we used a GST fusion protein to the N-SH2 domain of p85 (GST-p85-N-SH2) in far-Western blots to indirectly assess their phosphorylation status. Gab1 immunoprecipitates prepared from EGF-stimulated WT and Shp2-/- cells were resolved by SDS-PAGE, transferred to a PVDF membrane, incubated with GST-p85-N-SH2, and probed with anti-GST antibodies. As expected, there was an increase in GST-p85-N-SH2 binding to immunoprecipitated Gab1 following EGF stimulation. Moreover this interaction was enhanced markedly in Gab1 isolated from Shp2-/- cells (Fig. 4A). These data indicate that the ability of purified GST-p85-N-SH2 to bind directly to Gab1 is increased in EGF-stimulated cells lacking Shp2. Since GST-p85-N-SH2 binding to Gab1 is dependent on the tyrosyl phosphorylation of p85 binding sites on Gab1, the most likely explanation for these findings is that phosphorylation of p85 binding sites on Gab1 is increased in the absence of Shp2. We also assessed direct binding of the SH2 domains of Shp2 (GST-Shp2-N+C-SH2) to Gab1 immunoprecipitates isolated from WT and Shp2-/- cells after EGF stimulation. Only a minimal increase in binding was observed, consistent with selective dephosphorylation of the p85 binding sites of Gab1 by Shp2.
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DISCUSSION |
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Previous studies suggested that Gab1 and Gab2 might be Shp2 substrates (3, 7, 8, 25). Consistent with previous work (39), however, we observed no difference in total Gab1 tyrosyl phosphorylation in response to EGF (Fig. 1C) or other growth factors (data not shown) in the absence of Shp2. Moreover, Shc association with Gab1 was similar in WT and Shp2-/- cells (Fig. 1A). These findings left open the possibility that Shp2 might act on specific tyrosyl-phosphorylation sites on Gab1. Indeed, Gab1-associated p85 is increased dramatically in Shp2-/- cells (Fig. 1B). Accordingly, Gab1-associated PI3K activity is enhanced (Fig. 2A) and PI3K-dependent downstream targets (Fig. 2B to D) exhibit increased activation in response to EGF stimulation of these cells. Analogous results were obtained by using a cell line that inducibly overexpresses catalytically inactive Shp2 (Fig. 3). The truncated protein that is expressed in Shp2-/- cells lacks its N-terminal SH2 domain (35) and cannot bind to Gab1 (39). Furthermore, a Gab1 mutant unable to bind Shp2 exhibits increased p85 binding compared to that for WT Gab1 following EGF stimulation.
Taken together, these results imply that Shp2 must be recruited to Gab1 and be catalytically active to regulate Gab1-p85 association. The most likely explanation for these findings is that, upon recruitment to Gab1, Shp2 is activated by engagement of its N-terminal SH2 domain (1) and then dephosphorylates one or more of the PI3K binding sites on Gab1, thereby regulating Gab1-p85 interaction. Consistent with a direct effect of Shp2 deficiency on the tyrosyl phosphorylation of p85 sites on Gab1, far-Western analysis revealed a marked enhancement in the ability of p85 to bind to Gab1 isolated from Shp2-/- cells (Fig. 4A), whereas binding of Shp2 was only minimally affected (Fig. 4B). Our results clearly exclude the possibility that enhanced p85 association with Gab1 in the absence of functional Shp2 reflects an indirect effect of Shp2 deficiency on p85 or another protein that affects p85 binding to Gab1. However, we cannot exclude the possibility that Shp2 deficiency indirectly affects the ability of Gab1 to bind p85, e.g., by leading to another type of modification on Gab1 that affects binding ability. Direct assessment of the stoichiometry of phosphorylation of the p85 binding sites on Gab1 will be required to demonstrate this unambiguously.
In contrast, Grb2 association with Gab1 appears to be decreased slightly but consistently in Shp2-/- cells. The physiological significance of this observation remains to be determined, but notably, Shp2-/- (35, 38, 39) (Fig. 2B and 6) and Gab1-/- (14, 34) fibroblasts have defective Ras
Erk pathway activation in response to EGF and other growth factors. Since Grb2 binds the Ras exchange factor Sos, it will be important to determine whether decreased Gab1-Grb2 association contributes to decreased RasErk activation. The observed decrease in Gab1-Grb2 interaction has two other potentially interesting implications. First, since Gab1-Shc interaction and EGFR tyrosyl phosphorylation (and presumably kinase activity) are unaffected by Shp2 deficiency (Fig. 1A and C), these results suggest that different tyrosine kinases catalyze the phosphorylation of distinct sites on Gab1. Indeed, Gab2 is reportedly phosphorylated by both colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor and Src family kinases in macrophages (17). More intriguingly, however, since Gab1-Grb2 binding is decreased in the absence of Shp2, it is possible that Shp2 regulates (directly or indirectly) the activity of the kinase that phosphorylates the Grb2 binding site(s) on Gab1. Further studies will be required to address these issues.
Recently, it was reported that the recruitment of Gab1 to the EGFR initiates a positive feedback loop in which initial tyrosyl phosphorylation of Gab1 leads to p85 recruitment, PI3K activation, and PIP3 production, which then leads to further recruitment (and phosphorylation) of Gab1 via PIP3 binding to the Gab1 PH domain (31). Our data suggest that, by dephosphorylating p85 binding sites on Gab1, Shp2 helps to regulate the Gab1-PI3K positive feedback loop, thereby controlling the extent, kinetics, and location of PI3K activation in response to EGF (Fig. 8). Indeed, in the absence of Shp2, EGF induces sustained translocation of Gab1 to the plasma membrane (Fig. 7). Since Gab1 activation of the Erk pathway also requires membrane recruitment (and Gab1 signaling to Erk requires Shp2), Shp2 may contribute to both Erk activation and inactivation as well. However, we do not exclude the possibility that other mechanisms, such as the recruitment and activation of the 5'-inositol phosphatase Ship-2 and/or serine/threonine phosphorylation of Gab1 and/or PI3K, also contribute to negative regulation of the Gab1-PI3K positive feedback loop. A recent report also indicated that phosphorylation of Gab1 by Erk enhances p85 association with Gab1 (45). Importantly, the increased interaction of p85 with Gab1 in EGF-stimulated Shp2-/- cells cannot be explained by differential Erk activity, since EGF-evoked Erk activation is diminished in the absence of functional Shp2 (e.g., Fig. 2B). However, it is possible that decreased Erk activation may explain or help explain the decreased association of p85 with Gab1 in PDGF- and/or IGF-1-stimulated Shp2-/- cells (compared to WT cells).
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It is increasingly clear that signal thresholds and the temporal aspects of signaling are important for determining the cellular response. One way that cells can utilize the same (or similar) signaling pathways to control a wide range of cellular processes is to vary the amplitude and duration of pathway activation and to convert this into qualitatively different biological responses. In perhaps the best studied example, the EGFR induces transient Erk activation and stimulates proliferation of PC12 cells, whereas the NGF receptor and fibroblast growth factor receptor evoke a sustained Erk response, culminating in neuronal differentiation (21). By regulating the extent and magnitude of p85 association with Gab1 and thereby helping to regulate the extent and kinetics of PI3K activation in response to some, but not all, RTKs, Shp2 may play an important role in directing the varied effects of different growth factors.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Shp2 constructs, Brian S. Schaffhausen (Tufts University Medical School) for the expression vector for GST-p85-N-SH2, and Garry P. Nolan (Stanford University School of Medicine) for the Phoenix-Ecotropic packaging cells. This work was supported by NIH grant R01CA49152 to B.G.N. T.A. was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for Young Scientists.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Present address: Mouse Biology Program, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 00016 Monterotondo, Italy.
Present address: Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute, Martinsried, Germany.
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