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,
Neil Smyth,2,,
Sabine Nedbal,1
Nicolai Miosge,3
Anke Baranowsky,4
Sharada Mokkapati,4
Monzur Murshed,5 and
Roswitha Nischt4*
Department of Molecular Biology, Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany,1 Institute for Biochemistry II and Center of Molecular Medicine, University of Cologne, D-50924 Cologne, Germany,2 Department of Histology, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany,3 Department of Dermatology, University of Cologne, D-50924 Cologne, Germany,4 Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 770305
Received 21 December 2004/ Returned for modification 24 February 2005/ Accepted 4 May 2005
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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The nidogen family in mammals consists of two members, nidogen 1 and nidogen 2 (18, 41), also known as entactin 1 and 2 (6, 17), which are expressed by distinct genes located on different chromosomes (9, 35, 47). Both isoforms are ubiquitous basement membrane components with a similar distribution in various organs during embryonic development; however, in the case of nidogen 2, this becomes more restricted in some adult tissues, for instance, in striated muscles where only a faint staining of the muscle basement membranes can be detected (18, 26, 28, 33, 35). Biochemical and structural studies with nidogen 1 have shown binding to a wide spectrum of basement membrane-associated proteins, and it has been proposed that nidogens act as connecting elements between the collagen IV and laminin networks and integrate other basement membrane components, in particular, perlecan, into this specialized extracellular matrix (3, 11, 13, 29, 32). More recently, recombinant mouse nidogen 2 has been shown to possess binding properties comparable to those of nidogen 1 (33).
The high-affinity nidogen-binding site has been localized to a single laminin-type epidermal growth factor-like module, 
1III4, on the laminin 1 chain (21, 31) and is therefore present in most laminin isoforms. Antibodies against the 1III3-5 module, which contains the nidogen-binding module 1III4, perturb early kidney, lung, and salivary gland development in organ culture (10, 14), indicating that binding of nidogens or other proteins to this module could be required for development. Furthermore, it has been shown that the presence of competing recombinant 1III3-5 disrupts basement membrane development (5, 42). However, mice lacking the 1III4 module, produced in gene-targeting experiments, while having severe disruption of early kidney development and some abnormalities in late lung morphogenesis, failed to show defects in all basement membranes (12, 44).
While inactivation of the genes for the laminin ß1 or 1 chain in mice showed that laminin per se is a prerequisite for basement membrane formation (24, 37), and although signaling roles are highly significant in the function of certain laminin isoforms, many of the changes induced by the loss of basement membrane molecules appear to be related to a pure loss in mechanical stability (2, 7, 12, 22, 30, 44). Nidogen 1 and 2 knockout mice show surprisingly mild phenotypes. In nidogen 1-deficient animals, most basement membranes appear ultrastructurally unaltered, and there is little change in cellular or tissue morphology. The null animals appear generally healthy, have a normal life span, and are fertile (28). However, they show neurological phenotypes, in particular, a mild hind-limb ataxia and spontaneous seizure activity (8; N. Smyth and R. Nischt, unpublished data). While nidogen 1 is found in all basement membranes, the expression of its homologue, nidogen 2, is more limited, being found only in trace amounts in the basement membranes of skeletal and cardiac muscles. In nidogen 1-deficient animals, nidogen 2 is increased in these tissues by between three- and sevenfold as determined by radioimmunoassays (25) and is redistributed in its staining pattern, suggesting complementary functions of these two isoforms and shared binding partners in vivo (25, 28, 33). There is no alteration in the staining pattern of other basement membrane proteins. The nidogen 2-null animals show no phenotype and no obvious alteration in the expression pattern of other basement membrane molecules, including nidogen 1 (35).
As in the mouse, loss of the only known nidogen gene in Caenorhabditis elegans does not lead to obvious basement membrane defects, but altered axon guidance was noted in some nerves (15, 16). Furthermore, nidogen, together with collagen XVIII, appears to play an important role in synapse organization in the worm (1).
These in vivo results and the finding that nidogens have a broadly complementary binding repertoire suggest redundancy within this protein family. To study this further and to discover the importance of nidogens in development, compound nidogen 1/nidogen 2 mutant mice were generated and analyzed.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Histological analysis and immunofluorescence staining of tissues. Embryos and newborn mice were dissected, fixed for 2 to 4 h in 4% (wt/vol) paraformaldehyde-phosphate-buffered saline, and then embedded in paraffin wax, sectioned, and stained using hematoxylin-eosin according to standard protocols. For immunostaining, tissues were snap-frozen in optimal-cutting-temperature compound, and either cryosections (7 to 12 µm) or sections (5 to 10 µm) from paraffin-embedded tissues were used. Immunostaining was performed as described previously (28, 37) using polyclonal rabbit antisera directed against nidogen 1 (11), nidogen 2 (18), laminin 1 (20), collagen type IV (kindly provided by the late R. Timpl, Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany), and perlecan (34) and against human surfactant protein B (SP-B) (Chemicon International). Immunoreactivity was detected with a Cy3-conjugated goat anti-rabbit immunoglobulin G polyclonal serum (Jackson Immunodiagnostics). For double immunostainings, a rat monoclonal antibody directed against mouse CD31 (PECAM-1) was used (Pharmingen). Immunoreactivity was then detected with Alexa Fluor 488 goat anti-rat (green) and Alexa Fluor 568 goat anti-rabbit (red) immunoglobulin G polyclonal sera (Molecular Probes).
Ultrastructural analysis. Kidney, heart, and lung of embryos and newborn mice were dissected. For morphological investigation, 2-mm3 tissue fragments were isolated. Fixation, preparation, and staining for ultrastructural analysis have been described previously (26).
Protein analysis.
Total protein was extracted from kidneys and lungs from three control and nidogen double-null embryos at embryonic day 18.5 (E18.5). For immunoblotting, 20 µg total protein was separated under reducing conditions on 4 to 12% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gels, transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), and incubated with a polyclonal rabbit antiserum directed against the laminin 1 chain (1:1,000). Equal protein loadings of lanes was verified by incubating the blots with a mouse monoclonal antibody directed against actin (1:6,000; MP Biomedicals). Detection was done using a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit (1:1,000) or swine anti-mouse (1:2,000) antiserum (DAKO), respectively, followed by chemiluminescence detection (ECL; Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Urine collected from double-homozygous mutants and control littermates was subjected to microelectrophoresis. Proteins from 10 µl of urine were separated on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel, and the protein bands were then visualized by Coomassie blue staining according to standard protocols and analyzed by densitometry.
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RESULTS |
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Impaired heart morphogenesis and integrity in nidogen double-null mutants. Nidogen double-null mutants reaching parturition became cyanotic and, despite obvious efforts to breathe, died within 24 h after birth. Therefore, possible causes of mortality in these mice could be cardiovascular and/or respiratory failure. As both proteins are expressed in the heart (18, 35), and as the myocardial basement membrane of nidogen 1-deficient mice showed a marked redistribution and upregulation of nidogen 2 (25, 28), we first analyzed the cardiac structure in the double-null mice. Hearts isolated from nidogen double-null mice surviving birth generally showed no gross anatomical abnormalities, with the heart, the valvular structures, and the great vessels appearing normal. However, the hearts occasionally showed dilatation (data not shown). Mutant hearts isolated from embryos at E17.5 exhibited a diminished overall size, which varied in its severity (Fig. 1a, A and E). The weight of the smallest heart was 0.07 g, as opposed to an average weight of 0.09 g in control littermates.
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At earlier embryonic stages of heart development, prior to E14, the myocardial and endocardial cell layers were apparent and the myocardial walls of each chamber initially appeared to develop normally. Furthermore, the endocardial cushions, the anlage of the future valves, were developed as in the control hearts. However, at later stages, stretches of the endocardium in double-null embryos frequently separated from the underlying myocardial cells, whereas the endocardium of control hearts remained in tight contact with the myocard, presumably being maintained there in part by the intervening basement membrane (data not shown).
Immunofluorescence microscopy for the major basement membrane proteins laminin, perlecan, and collagen type IV in mutant and control hearts showed the typical localization in the basement membrane zone of the myocardium and cardiac blood vessels in control double-heterozygous embryos at E18.5 (Fig. 1b, A, C, E, G, I, and I*). In contrast, the deposition of these proteins appeared to be reduced to various degrees in nidogen double-null hearts (Fig. 1b, F, H, K, and K*). Immunostaining of larger blood vessels was comparable in nidogen double-null and control hearts (Fig. 1b, E to L). However, while some of the capillaries in nidogen-deficient hearts showed a normal staining pattern (arrows), others had an irregular (arrowheads) or sometimes patchy staining pattern for collagen type IV (Fig. 1b, L). A similar staining pattern for larger and smaller blood vessel in the heart was also observed by confocal microscopy using laminin antibodies (Fig. 2). Double immunofluorescence with antibodies directed against CD31, an endothelial cell marker, revealed that all capillaries show laminin immunoreactivity, although the costaining of some vessels appear significantly weaker in nidogen-deficient hearts (Fig. 2, D to F) than in control hearts (Fig. 2, A to C).
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In respect to the number of lobes and their separation, the lungs had developed normally and were of similar sizes, and the diaphragm had formed (data not shown). Though the major bronchial trees were present in double-null mice, the lungs were more compact than those of the controls (Fig. 4a). Histology of nidogen double-null embryos at E17.5 (Fig. 4a, B) and E18.5 (Fig. 4a, D) showed that lung development was delayed, with extensive mesenchyme remaining. At both developmental stages (Fig. 4a, B and D), the mutant lungs still showed pseudoglandular and canalicular stage-like morphology with terminal lung buds surrounded by extensive mesenchyme, whereas lungs from control littermates were already in the saccular stage at E18.5 (Fig 4a, C). However, early signs of forming saccules can be seen in nidogen-deficient lungs (Fig. 4a, D). Formation of the thin and extensive air-blood barrier is essential for gas exchange and hence crucial for survival postnatally. At birth, lungs from control littermates show typically dilated peripheral airway saccules (Fig. 4a, E and G). Nidogen double-null mice examined at birth had improperly expanded sacculi with very small alveolar spaces and thicker septa (Fig 4a, F and H). At higher magnification, it became apparent that the prealveolar sacculi were immature and poorly inflated, and mesenchymal thickening between the terminal airspaces was observed (Fig. 4a, H). In those mice managing to survive a few hours past birth, the lung showed greater signs of inflation; however, there were some 50% fewer inflated sacculi than in control littermates, and they generally had thicker septae.
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1 present in these tissues compared to control embryos (Fig. 5). Lungs isolated from mice at postnatal day 0 (P0) and immunostained for the laminin 1 chain displayed a continuous staining pattern at this stage (Fig. 4G and H). SP-B is a product of the cuboidal type II pneumocyte. Its expression first occurs early in the embryonic period of lung formation and rapidly increases prior to birth, when the respiratory tubules form alveoli (43). Immunostaining at E18.5 showed a lower level of expression in double-null mutants than in control littermates (Fig. 4b, L and M), suggesting a delay of pulmonary development in the absence of nidogens.
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1 chain (Fig. 6C and D) or perlecan (data not shown) showed a well-defined linear staining in the glomerular basement membrane and Bowman's capsule. While laminin immunoreactivity was detectable under all tubules, some displayed a more diffuse staining. Electron microscopy of the E18.5 kidney in nidogen double-null embryos revealed the fully formed dual basement membrane characteristic of the glomerulus with well-formed podocytes and slit junctions (Fig. 6E and F). However, the basement membrane underlying the tubular epithelium, while in many regions appearing normal, was also sometimes altered, giving a diffuse and thickened pattern (data not shown) or being totally absent (Fig. 6G and H). As stated above, a small minority of nidogen double-null mice failed to develop one or both kidneys (Fig. 7B). Furthermore, some mice also showed renal dysgenesis which was inconsistent in its severity. In a number of double-null mutant kidneys examined histologically (7/28), evident formation of cysts with variable sizes through the renal medulla and cortex was seen (Fig. 7D). Obvious hydronephrosis occurred in two further kidneys (Fig. 7C), resulting in the thinning and fibrosis of the renal cortex and a dilated and tortuous ureter. In one of these cases, the ureter could be followed back to a cystic structure continuous with the vas deferens. Similar defects were not encountered in any of the control littermates examined.
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DISCUSSION |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Embryonic development is not affected by the loss of nidogens. Basement membranes are believed to be crucial during embryogenesis for both tissue strengthening and inductive events. The potential of nidogen 1 to bridge the laminin and collagen IV networks and its high-affinity interaction with the perlecan core protein led to the proposal that nidogens play a central role for basement membrane assembly and integrity (3, 11, 13, 40). The importance of the laminin-nidogen interaction for organogenesis was demonstrated in antibody perturbation studies showing impaired branching morphogenesis of kidney and lung organ cultures (10, 14). Therefore, it was unexpected that mice lacking nidogen 1 did not show developmental defects, their basement membranes appearing normal (28). However, in these mice, redistribution and/or upregulation of nidogen 2 was observed (25, 28), suggesting redundancy within the nidogen family. Indeed, nidogen 2 has a highly homologous domain structure and binding repertoire and colocalizes with nidogen 1 in almost all basement membranes during embryonic development (18, 25, 33). Mice lacking nidogen 2 showed no overt abnormalities, and basement membrane defects strengthened this compensation hypothesis (35) and prompted us to generate mice lacking both nidogen isoforms.
These mice reveal that the deposition of basement membranes is not critically dependent on the presence of nidogens. Embryos reach term and are born, indicating that these proteins are dispensable for basement membrane function and for development in most tissues and that the secretion and deposition of other basement membrane components are sufficient for the essential functions of basement membranes during embryogenesis. Of the other ubiquitous basement membrane proteins, i.e., laminin, collagen type IV, and perlecan, only genetic deletion of the laminin 1 subchains in mice resulted in early embryonic lethality at the peri-implantation stage (24, 37), whereas ablation of any other basement membrane component resulted in later defects (7, 22, 28, 30, 35, 44). In vitro laminins are known to self-interact to form a polymer (46), and the in vivo results show that these aggregates formed by laminins are sufficient to provide minimal matrices which enable migration, differentiation, proliferation, and cell survival in the early embryo (24, 37). This suggests that either laminins alone are sufficient for the formation of basement membrane-like structures or the other components can compensate for one another to varying degrees. The lack of one basement membrane component like perlecan, collagen IV, or, as described here, nidogen may still allow formation of an imperfect basement membrane-like matrix which provides the basic functions essential for early embryogenesis. In the nidogen double-null embryos, the major basement membrane components are produced, suggesting that the absence of nidogens does not impair secretion of laminins, perlecan, or collagen type IV. While the variable weaker immunostaining intensities for basement membrane components in the mutants, for instance, in the heart, may be due to decreased synthesis, it is more likely caused by reduced retention of these basement membrane components as indicated by immunoblot analysis. This effect was obvious only in organs where basement membranes appear ultrastructurally altered or absent and suggests that in specific tissues, nidogens have a role in the recruitment to or maintenance of other proteins at the basement membrane zone. Similar findings have been previously described in mice lacking the nidogen-binding module of the laminin 1 chain (44) or collagen IV (30).
Nidogens are important for myocardial basement membrane formation and heart function. Nidogen double-null mice surviving to birth become cyanotic and die within 24 h, possibly due to either pulmonary or cardiovascular failure. Superficially, hearts isolated from these mice showed little changes, and the valvular structures and great vessels appeared normal, indicating that nidogens are not essential for heart development. However, the myocardium was thinner and less organized, with severe separation of the muscle fibers in some cases. Ultrastructural analysis revealed striking abnormalities in the cardiac basement membranes. There were no distinct basement membranes detectable surrounding cardiomyocytes and cardiac capillaries as well as underlying either the epicardium or endocardium, clearly demonstrating that nidogens are a prerequisite for the formation of ultrastructurally normal basement membranes in the heart. Interestingly, although nidogen is essential for myocardial basement membrane formation, this basement membrane does not appear to be required to maintain the overall integrity of the muscle, as these mice do not develop complete myocardial breakdown leading to pericardial hemorrhage. This indicates that either the residual disorganized basement membrane, other extracellular matrices, and/or cell-cell contacts such as at the intercalated discs, which are normal in nidogen double-null embryos, are sufficient to maintain the gross integrity of the myocardium and to compensate for the basement membrane defects. This is in contrast to findings in mice lacking the other major basement membrane components, perlecan and collagen type IV, which generally die at E10.5 due to a rupture of the myocardium resulting in intrapericardial hemorrhage. While these proteins are also not essential for initiating basement membrane assembly in other organs, they are crucial for the structural and functional integrity of the working heart (7, 30).
Our findings suggest that nidogens have a less significant role in heart development and stabilization of tissue architecture but are required for the formation of ultrastructurally normal basement membranes in this high-stress environment. It may be that other extracellular matrices which are adversely affected by the absence, for instance, of perlecan may be more important for early cardiac development. In later embryonic development, and at birth, heart function is associated with increased contraction and capacity demands. Presumably, the finding of a thinner, irregular muscle wall and postnatal cardiac dilation is evidence for a failure of the mutant heart to withstand these increasing stresses despite other mechanisms maintaining its overall integrity. A similar cardiac phenotype has not been described in mice lacking the nidogen-binding site on the laminin 1 chain (44), indicating that other nidogen functions rather than laminin binding may be important in the heart.
While intrapericardial hemorrhage due to myocardial rupture was not a feature of nidogen double-null mice, locally restricted bleeding within the heart wall did occur in many mutant embryos. Since distinct cardiac capillary basement membranes were not detected, these hemorrhages are likely to result from blood leakage out of the microvasculature.
Delayed lung development in nidogen-deficient mice. Nidogens and in particular their interaction with laminin have been suggested to be crucial for branching morphogenesis (10, 14). Our results indicate that early branching morphogenesis of the lung is unaffected by the lack of both nidogen isoforms. The size and lobation of the lungs in nidogen double-null mice were not obviously abnormal, indicating that branching morphogenesis in the pseudoglandular and canalicular stages is also not dramatically disturbed in the absence of nidogens. However, morphological abnormalities are obvious in the later maturation stages. At E17.5 and E18.5, the lungs in nidogen-deficient mice have an appearance comparable to those seen in wild-type mice in the late pseudoglandular and canalicular stages, with extensive mesenchyme remaining. At birth, the prealveolar sacculi were immature, with thick mesenchymal septae, which have normally thinned in preparation for birth. Differentiation of epithelial cells is characteristic of fetal lungs at the saccular stage; ultrastructurally, only very few alveoli were found in the double-knockout mice at E18.5, and most of the smaller bronchioli, while present, lacked a well-defined basement membrane (data not shown). SP-B produced by type II alveolar pneumocytes could be detected by immunostaining in the lungs of mutant mice, indicating that epithelial differentiation of airway cells had proceeded in the absence of nidogens. However, the reduced expression of surfactant protein in the mutants suggests a delay or/and an impairment of the epithelial differentiation process.
Taken together, all these findings are reminiscent of the immature lungs which result in respiratory distress syndrome of premature human infants, suggesting that respiratory failure might have caused the death of most nidogen-deficient pups. Furthermore, these data demonstrate that while nidogens are not essential for embryonic lung development and lung branching morphogenesis, they are required for the morphological and functional maturation of the lung needed at birth. A similar lung phenotype has been described in mice lacking the nidogen-binding site on the laminin 1 chain (44), indicating that the high-affinity binding of nidogen to laminin might be the critical interaction for normal lung maturation. The importance of basement membrane proteins for lung development has been described in other gene knockout mice lacking the laminin 
5 chain (22). Interestingly, ablation of fibulin 1, a minor basement membrane component interacting with nidogens, causes delayed embryonic lung development, resembling nidogen-deficient lungs, with thickened parenchymal septa and improperly expanded saculi at E18.5 (19).
Kidney formation can proceed in the absence of nidogens.
Development of the kidneys also involves branching morphogenesis, and in organ culture, this process can be impaired by blocking the nidogen-binding site on the laminin 1 chain by antibodies directed against the nidogen-binding module (10, 21, 31). While mice harboring a genetic deletion of the nidogen-binding site on the laminin 1 chain generally showed a renal aplasia, where kidneys did form, they had a reduced number of glomeruli which were often distorted (44). However, our data show that branching morphogenesis during kidney development occurs in the absence of both nidogen isoforms. In most nidogen double-null mice, the urogenital tract appears normal. The kidneys in most of these mice functioned normally around birth as shown by the analysis of the urine. As glomerular filtration requires an intact basement membrane, this result suggests that filtration is not significantly disturbed by the loss of nidogens. Indeed, ultrastructural analysis revealed a glomerular basement membrane in the mutant kidneys indistinguishable from that of wild-type kidneys with well-formed podocytes and slit junctions. Furthermore, the changes in the glomerular blood vessels seen in mice lacking the nidogen-binding site upon laminin, resulting in varicosities and bleeding into the glomerulus (44), were not obvious in mice lacking both nidogen isoforms.
In contrast to the normal glomerular basement membrane, the tubular basement membrane in nidogen double-null kidneys was sometimes absent or thickened and diffuse, indicating a different structural role for nidogens within the glomerular and tubular basement membranes and possibly the presence of different binding partners within these structures.
Renal agenesis did occur in a small percentage of nidogen double-null mutants. Variable penetrance of impaired kidney development has been reported upon deletion of the laminin 5 chain (23), fibulin 1 (19), or the integrin 8 subunit (27). This is most likely due to stochastic events which allow a proportion of mice to overcome the absence of these proteins. These as-yet-unknown variations may also be the reason for the loss of embryos at various stages of development observed in many mouse strains with deficiencies of extracellular matrix proteins or integrin receptors (4, 7, 19, 45).
What is most striking is the very high penetrance of renal aplasia (
90%) in mice lacking the nidogen-binding site in the laminin 1 chain (44). This is believed to occur due to a failure in the outgrowth of the Wolffian duct, and presumably, this is the underlying change producing renal aplasia in the small number of nidogen-deficient mice. Indeed, no ureter was present in these animals. The vast difference in the penetrance between the nidogen double-null and the nidogen-binding site-lacking mouse lines could be caused by free nidogen in the latter, sequestering other matrix and matrix-associated molecules away from the basement membrane region and therefore having a more severe effect on Wolffian duct outgrowth. Alternatively, although nidogen binding is the only known activity of this region of the laminin 1 chain, it is possible that the observed kidney defects in mice lacking the nidogen-binding site are the result of altering other, unidentified activities of the laminin 1 subunit.
In summary, this work shows that the previously held theory that nidogens are the major molecular link between the laminin and collagen IV networks and are therefore crucial for basement membrane formation is false. Nidogens are not needed for early embryogenesis nor are they required for most events in organogenesis; rather, they have specific roles in the formation and maintenance of certain basement membranes.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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We thank Jay W. Fox for the generous gifts of antibodies. We gratefully acknowledge the excellent technical assistance by Marion Reibetanz (Department of Dermatology) and Christian Frie (Institute for Biochemistry II). Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the late Rupert Timpl to this work.
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FOOTNOTES |
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B.L.B. and N.S. contributed equally to this work.
Present address: Department of Nutritional Medicine, Technical University Munich, D-85350 Freising, Germany.
Present address: School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom.
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