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Division of Molecular Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine III, Nikolaus Fiebiger Center, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany,1 Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Research Team Cellular Quality Control, Meibergdreef 33, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands2
Received 21 December 2004/ Returned for modification 22 January 2005/ Accepted 28 November 2005
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ABSTRACT |
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INTRODUCTION |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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NMD was first observed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (40) and Caenorhabditis elegans (23) and seems to operate in all eukaryotes, including mammals (13). Recently, homologs of the three yeast NMD factors Upf1p, Upf2p, and Upf3p (for Up frameshift protein) have been identified in humans. hUPF1/rent1 (3, 41, 45, 56, 58), the human homolog of yeast UPF1/regulator of nonsense transcripts, is an ATP-dependent RNA helicase (5), can be phosphorylated at serine residues in SQ motifs (55, 70), and resides in the cytoplasm (3), although it can enter the nucleus (46). hUPF1 is supposed to trigger efficient degradation of nonsense transcripts once it has been recruited to the mRNA by hUPF2/rent2. hUPF2 can also be phosphorylated (12), has no known enzymatic activity, shows strong perinuclear staining, and interacts not only with hUPF1 (41) but also with hUPF3, a nucleocytoplasmic shuttle protein and component of the exon junction complex (29, 41). Antisense RNA, RNA interference (RNAi), and dominant-negative approaches identified hUPF1 and hUPF2 as critical NMD factors involved in reducing levels of nonsense mRNAs in human cells (46, 61, 66). NMD activity in human cells is at least in part controlled by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of hUPF1 through the phosphoinositol-3-kinase-related kinase hSMG-1, the human homolog of the C. elegans NMD factor SMG-1, and a dephosphorylation complex consisting of the C. elegans NMD homologs hSMG-5, -6, and -7 and the phosphatase PP2A (2, 11, 14, 20, 51, 70).
Classical NMD substrates are PTC-bearing nonfunctional and aberrant transcripts that are encoded either by genes bearing inherited in-frame nonsense mutations or by unproductively rearranged immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor genes. Aberrant PTC-bearing transcripts can also originate during mRNA biogenesis through RNA polymerase mistakes as well as inaccurate or incomplete pre-mRNA splicing. In mammals, NMD usually recognizes PTC-bearing nonsense transcripts only if they can be translated, have been generated by splicing from intron-bearing pre-mRNAs, and adhere to the 55-nucleotide (nt) rule, i.e., they contain more than 55 nt downstream of the PTC an exon-exon junction that has been created by removing an intron (reviewed in reference 43). During pre-mRNA splicing, a complex of at least eight proteins is deposited 
20 nt upstream of each exon-exon junction (34, 35). This exon-exon junction complex (EJC) is displaced from the transcript during the first round of translation by ribosomes (16, 24, 36). If translation terminates prematurely more than 55 nt upstream of the last exon-exon junction, EJC proteins, including hUPF3 and hUPF2, will remain associated with the mRNA and recruit the NMD factor hUPF1, thereby inducing rapid mRNA degradation through 5' or 3' exonucleases. Since authentic translational termination codons are typically located either within the terminal exon or less than 55 nt upstream from the splice acceptor of the penultimate exon (42), 3' ends of such transcripts are not associated with EJCs and should therefore be immune to NMD.
A small number of cases are known in mammals where NMD removes not only aberrant nonfunctional but also physiologic PTC-bearing transcripts, suggesting a more general role of NMD in regulating gene expression. Examples are mRNAs encoding certain selenoproteins (49) and alternatively spliced transcripts with PTC-bearing exons. The latter may play a pivotal part in a postulated mechanism termed RUST (Regulated Unproductive Splicing and Translation). RUST controls protein levels through regulated alternative splicing, which determines the ratio between NMD-resistant functional and NMD-sensitive PTC-bearing unproductive transcripts (38). Although a few examples exist for such a coupling between regulated splicing and NMD in C. elegans (48) and humans (32, 62, 68) and one third of human mRNA splice variants should be candidates for NMD (38), it is still unclear whether the function of NMD in posttranscriptional control of gene expression is restricted to a few substrates or is a more prevalent phenomenon.
To address this question, we impaired NMD in human HeLa cells by stably down-regulating hUPF2 through RNAi. Genome-wide expression profiling of wild-type (WT) and NMD-impaired HeLa cells in fact identified novel physiologic PTC-bearing transcripts whose levels are controlled by the NMD pathway.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Antibodies. Rabbit antiactin antibodies from Sigma (Steinheim, Germany) were used at a dilution of 1:1,000, monoclonal mouse anti-BiP antibodies from BD Biosciences (Heidelberg, Germany) at a dilution of 1:250, and anti-phospho-(Ser/Thr) ATM/ATR substrate antibodies from Cell Signaling Technology (Schwalbach, Germany) at a dilution of 1:1,000. An affinity-purified rabbit antiserum directed against an hUPF1 peptide was previously described (3). An antiserum against hUPF2 was generated by immunizing rabbits (Pineda Antikörperservice, Berlin, Germany) with a bacterially produced His-tagged glutathione S-transferase fusion protein harboring at its C-terminal end a partial hUPF2 sequence (amino acid positions 1,066 to 1,272; accession number AAG48509). The hUPF2 antiserum was affinity purified on immobilized glutathione S-transferase-hUPF2(1,066 to 1,272) and used at a dilution of 1:2,000. Antibodies against keyhole limpet hemocyanin-conjugated hUPF3a and hUPF3b peptides were prepared in rabbits, affinity purified on immobilized hUPF3a and hUPF3b peptides, and used at a dilution of 1:250. Secondary horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated goat anti-rabbit and goat anti-mouse immunoglobulin G (IgG) (heavy plus light chains) antibodies were purchased from Bio-Rad (Munich, Germany).
Western blotting and immunoprecipitation. Cells were lysed in radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) buffer (1% NP-40, 0.25% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate [SDS], 5 mM EDTA, 50 mM Tris [pH 7.4], and protease inhibitors) on ice for 15 min, and nuclei and cell debris were removed by centrifugation. Cleared lysates were separated on 8% SDS-polyacrylamide (PAA) gels, transferred onto Protean nitrocellulose membranes (Schleicher & Schuell, Dassel, Germany), and subjected to Western blot analysis as previously described (7). Briefly, membranes were blocked with 5% nonfat dry milk (Toepfer, Dietmannsried, Germany), incubated with the appropriate unconjugated primary antibody, followed by respective secondary HRP-conjugated antibodies, and developed with the enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) method (Amersham, Freiburg, Germany). For immunoprecipitations, lysates from 5 x 106 cells in 1 ml RIPA buffer were incubated with 5 µg of affinity-purified rabbit antibodies against hUPF1 for 3 h at 4°C; immunocomplexes were precipitated with protein G Sepharose (Amersham) overnight at 4°C, washed four times with RIPA buffer, separated on 8% SDS-PAA gels, and transferred to a membrane. Phosphorylated hUPF1 (P-hUPF1) and hUPF1 signals were visualized as described above with respective antibodies.
Construction of plasmids encoding nonsense mRNA.
The Ig µ heavy chain (µHC) sense vector encoding a rearranged µHC gene was constructed by cloning a rearranged genomic VDJ segment and the complete genomic constant region of the µHC gene (Cµ1-4) into pBluescript II (Stratagene) under the control of a tetracycline regulatable promoter cassette. The µHC nonsense vector was identical to the µHC sense vector except that it contained an in-frame point mutation within exon Cµ2, which converted a BamHI site into a premature translational termination codon. ß-Globin sense and nonsense vectors were described in reference 64 and kindly provided by A. Kulozik (Heidelberg, Germany). To control for transfection efficiencies, the respective WT and stop vectors were cotransfected into HeLa-tTA or H2KD cells together with a mammalian expression vector harboring a mouse cDNA for an Ig
light chain (LC) under the control of a cytomegalovirus enhancer/promoter.
Northern blot analysis. Total RNA from HeLa-tTA or H2KD cells was prepared with the RNeasy mini kit (QIAGEN) and analyzed by Northern blotting as described previously (25). Briefly, RNA was separated on 1.2% denaturing agarose-formaldehyde gels and transferred onto GeneScreen Plus membrane (PerkinElmer, Zaventems, Belgium). Hybridizations with radioactively labeled DNA probes and subsequent washings were performed as previously described (25). Radioactive bands were detected by autoradiography and with a Fujifilm FLA 3000 phosphorimager. Imaging plates were analyzed using the BASReader software program and quantified with the AIDA image analyzer (Raytest, Straubenhardt, Germany).
RT-PCR analyses. Total RNA was extracted from HeLa-tTA and H2KD cells with the RNeasy mini kit from QIAGEN and treated with DNase I (QIAGEN). First-strand cDNA was synthesized from 3 µg oligo(dT)-primed RNA with the Superscript II kit from Invitrogen. cDNAs were amplified with BioTherm Taq polymerase (GeneCraft, Lüdinghausen, Germany) and specific single-stranded DNA primers for 28 PCR cycles (denaturation, 94°C for 30 s; annealing, 50°C for 25 s; extension, 72°C for 100 s for TfR2 and hUPF2 and 45 s for other cDNAs). PCR products were separated on agarose gels, visualized by ethidium bromide staining, gel purified, and in the case of TfR2, cloned into Invitrogen's TA cloning vector. For quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis, cDNA reaction mixtures were mixed with 2x ABsolute qRT-PCR SYBR green ROX mix (Abgene, Hamburg, Germany) and the appropriate primers and filled with water to 20 µl. qRT-PCRs were performed in triplicates in an Applied Biosystems 7300 real-time PCR system (Applied Biosystems Darmstadt, Germany) with 15 min as initial stage at 95°C to activate the DNA polymerase, followed by 40 PCR cycles of 95°C for 15 s and 60°C for 1 min. Dissociation curves were generated by heating to 95°C for 15 s, 60°C for 30 s, and 95°C for 15 s. Standardization was performed by quantification of the ß-actin gene as an endogenous control. Statistical analysis was performed on at least three independent experiments. Primers (from Invitrogen) used for conventional and qRT-PCR are listed in Table 1.
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Oligonucleotide microarray analysis. Total RNA was isolated from mid-confluent-phase WT and H2KD cells with Trizol reagent (Invitrogen) and further purified using an RNeasy mini kit (QIAGEN). Residual traces of genomic DNA were removed with DNase I (QIAGEN). For first-strand cDNA synthesis, 13.5 µg of total RNA was annealed with a mixture of three polyadenylated control RNAs and 100 µM of a T7-oligo(dT)24-V primer [5'-GCATTAGCGGCCGCGAAATTAATACGACTCACTATAGGGAGA-(dT)24V-3'; MWG Biotech] for 10 min at 70°C. The first strand was synthesized at 42°C for 1 h with 200 U of Superscript II (Invitrogen); the second strand was completed first with 40 U Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I (Invitrogen), 12 U E. coli DNA ligase (TaKaRa; BioWhittaker, Taufkirchen, Germany), and 2 U RNase H (TaKaRa) at 16°C for 2 h and then with 10 U T4 DNA polymerase I (TaKaRa) for 5 min at 16°C. The reaction was stopped with 10 µl 0.5 M EDTA; cDNA was extracted with phenol-chloroform, and the aqueous phase was recovered by Phase Lock Gel separation (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany). Precipitated cDNA was dissolved in RNase-free water and used to synthesize biotinylated cRNA using the BioArray high yield RNA transcript labeling kit from Enzo Diagnostics (Santa Clara, CA). Labeled cRNA was purified using the RNeasy mini kit (QIAGEN). Fragmentation of cRNA, hybridization to HG-U133A microarrays (Affymetrix, High Wycombe, United Kingdom), washing, and staining as well as scanning of the arrays in a GeneArray scanner (Agilent, Böblingen, Germany) were performed as recommended in the Affymetrix gene expression analysis technical manual. Signal intensities and detection calls were determined using the GeneChip 5.0 software. A scaling across all probe sets of a given array to an average intensity of 1,000 units was included to compensate for variations in the amount and quality of the cRNA samples and other experimental variables. To detect differentially expressed genes, comparison files were further filtered using the Affymetrix Data Mining Tool 3.0 software. Filter criteria included a change of "I," a signal log ratio of >1, and a detection P value of <0.001 or a change of "D," a signal log ratio of <–1, and a detection P value of >0.999.
Bioinformatics. To compare RNA to genomic sequences, we used either the Spidey mRNA-to-genomic alignment program (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/IEB/Research/Ostell/Spidey/spideyweb.cgi) or the UCSC genome browser (http://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgGateway). Public sequence databases as well as Celera's annotated human genome were browsed with gene symbol entries using Celera's interactive graphical viewer, myScience Map Viewer (http://myscience.appliedbiosystems.com/). Information about a protein's molecular functions was retrieved from Celera's Panther (http://myscience.appliedbiosystems.com), Weizmann's GeneCards (http://bioinfo.weizmann.ac.il/cards/index.shtml), and Swissprot/TrEMBL (http://au.expasy.org/cgi-bin/sprot-search-ful) databases. The database for alternative splice forms with NMD features was described previously (38) and can be accessed at http://compbio.berkeley.edu/people/ed/rust/Results.html.
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RESULTS |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Establishment of HeLa clones with a stable knockdown (KD) of hUPF2 by RNAi. We first designed a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) oligonucleotide that is flanked by appropriate restriction overhangs and consists of a 19-nt sequence derived from hUPF2, followed by a short spacer and the reverse complement of the 19 nt. The dsDNA fragment was inserted downstream of the H1 RNA polymerase III promoter into the expression plasmid pSUPER (Fig. 1A) (9). The inserted hUPF2 sequence encodes a transcript that should form an hUPF2-specific shRNA (at the top of Fig. 1A), which can be targeted to the RNAi machinery like an siRNA molecule. pSUPER-hUPF2 was cotransfected with a plasmid harboring a puromycin N-acetyltransferase gene into human HeLa cells. Stable puromycin-resistant HeLa clones were selected and analyzed for hUPF2 levels by Western blot analysis (Fig. 1B). While specific rabbit antibodies clearly detected hUPF2 with the expected molecular mass of 147 kDa in untransfected HeLa cells (designated as "WT" throughout the rest of this paper), hUPF2 protein was virtually absent in the puromycin-resistant hUPF2 knock-down clone 2 (H2KD.2), even after these cells were continuously cultured for up to 12 weeks and longer (Fig. 1B). The same results were obtained with the H2KD.3 clone (data not shown). To quantify the degree of hUPF2 silencing at the protein level, we performed Western blot analysis of threefold serially diluted lysates from equal numbers of WT and hUPF2-silenced H2KD cells. As shown in Fig. 1C (upper row), an hUPF2 signal could still be detected in a 1:9 diluted lysate from the WT but was barely visible in an undiluted lysate in H2KD.2 cells, suggesting that the hUPF2 protein level was reduced in H2KD cells to 10% of that in WT cells or even less. shRNA-mediated down-regulation of hUPF2 expression in H2KD cells was verified at the mRNA level by conventional RT-PCR (Fig. 1D) and quantified by DNA microarray analyses and qRT-PCR (Fig. 1E). Surprisingly, both microarray (see Table S1 in the supplemental material) as well as qRT-PCR analysis revealed that hUPF2 was decreased at the mRNA level by approximately 60% (Fig. 1E), which is clearly above the 90% reduction of hUPF2 at the protein level in H2KD cells. Hence, hUPF2-specific shRNA not only induces mRNA degradation but in analogy to microRNA (15), might also affect translation.
hUPF2 controls steady-state levels of ectopically expressed nonsense transcripts.
The effect of stable hUPF2 silencing on a cell's ability to reduce levels of nonsense mRNAs was assessed by transiently transfecting WT and H2KD cells with plasmids encoding either a functional transcript or its corresponding nonsense counterpart with an in-frame PTC. We chose nonsense transcripts encoding mouse µHC (26) and human ß-globin mRNAs (64) as well-characterized NMD model substrates. Cotransfection of a plasmid carrying a rearranged mouse LC gene controlled for differences in transfection efficiencies. Total RNA was isolated 48 h after transfection of WT and H2KD.2 cells with sense and nonsense expression constructs, and Northern blotting was performed with specific radiolabeled DNA probes. Signal intensities were quantified by phosphorimaging, and relative steady-state levels of WT and nonsense transcripts were calculated by dividing their experimental signals by LC signals. Relative mRNA levels of sense transcripts in WT cells were arbitrarily set to 100%.
As expected, relative levels of sense transcripts encoding either ß-globin (Fig. 2A) or µHC (Fig. 2B) did not significantly change in hUPF2-silenced H2KD cells compared to those of WT cells. In contrast, relative nonsense ß-globin (Fig. 2A) as well as nonsense µHC (Fig. 2B) mRNA levels showed an approximately threefold increase in hUPF2-silenced H2KD.2 cells. Nonsense transcripts in H2KD.2 cells, however, did not reach the level of the corresponding sense transcripts but accumulated to 65% and 40% of that observed for ß-globin and µHC sense transcripts, respectively. Similar results were obtained when we transiently cotransfected HeLa cells with a synthetic hUPF2-specific siRNA and the nonsense ß-globin or the nonsense µHC reporter gene (data not shown). Hence, stable hUPF2 silencing results in a lasting impairment of NMD, which confirms findings obtained for HeLa cells by transiently reducing hUPF2 levels with siRNA (46) or antisense transcripts (66).
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Conversely, down-regulation of hSMG-6, the human homolog of C. elegans SMG-6 (11, 18) and a cofactor involved in dephosphorylation of hUPF1 (11), reduced hSMG-6 levels by approximately 60% (see Fig. S1 in the supplemental material) by transiently transfecting HeLa cells with a plasmid encoding an hSMG-6-specific shRNA (54) and resulted in a stronger signal of the anti-P-(Ser/Thr) ATM/ATR substrate antibody-reactive 130-kDa band (Fig. 4C, first blot). The increase of the 130-kDa band was specific, as levels of hUPF2 and the chaperone BiP did not change in hSMG-6 shRNA-transfected HeLa cells compared to levels in mock-transfected cells (Fig. 4C, blots 2 and 3, respectively). These findings not only complement a previous report by Chiu and coworkers, who showed that overexpression of hSMG-6 leads to a decrease in hUPF1 phosphorylation (11), but also identify the P-(Ser/Thr) ATM/ATR substrate antibody-reactive 130-kDa band as hUPF1.
In summary, we have identified by three independent approaches (Fig. 4A to C) the anti-P-(Ser/Thr) ATM/ATR substrate antibody-reactive 130-kDa band as phosphorylated hUPF1; thus, hUPF2 directly or indirectly controls the phosphorylation of hUPF1 in mammalian cells. However, reduction of hUPF1 phosphorylation in response to an hUPF2 knockdown is not the result of increased mRNA levels of the hUPF1-dephosphorylating NMD factors hSMG-5 and hSMG-6 (11), since levels of both transcripts did not change in hUPF2-silenced HeLa (H2KD) cells, as revealed by qRT-PCR.
Effect of hUPF2 silencing on growth and survival of human HeLa cells. The human cervix cancer line HeLa can be cultured for a long period despite an impaired NMD and barely detectable levels of hUPF2. This is in line with the finding that NMD is not essential for viability of yeast cells, since deletion of any of the three yeast UPF genes leads to only a minimal impairment in respiration (1) and an increased sensitivity to chemical inhibitors of translation (33). Nevertheless, it is still possible that hUPF2-silenced cells survive but have a growth disadvantage compared to WT HeLa cells. This, however, seems not to be the case, since the increase in numbers over time of both WT and hUPF2-silenced H2KD cells was the same, i.e., the cells grew equally well (Fig. 5A). Further, PI stainings of nuclei revealed no significant differences in either the cell cycle distribution or the frequencies of cells in the sub-G1 gate (representing dying cells with fragmented DNA) in WT (Fig. 5B, a) and H2KD (Fig. 5B, b) cells. Finally, compared to those of WT HeLa cells, microscopic analyses did not show any obvious morphological changes of H2KD cells (data not shown). Based on these findings, we conclude that hUPF2-silenced H2KD cells possess growth and survival properties similar to those of WT cells. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a mammalian cell line with a stable impairment of NMD.
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0.001 or 
0.999 were included in the analysis. When we applied these stringent conditions, 37 of the approximately 2,400 reproducibly detected mRNAs (1.5%) were found to be up-regulated, and 57 transcripts (2.4%) were found to be down-regulated in hUPF2-silenced H2KD compared to those in WT cells. As expected for a positive control, hUPF2 levels were decreased in analyzed H2KD samples. Complete lists of all differentially regulated genes are included in Table S1 in the supplemental material. As shown in Fig. 6A and B, qualitative changes observed in microarray analyses could be verified for randomly selected up- and down-regulated transcripts by semiquantitative RT-PCR as well as qRT-PCR analysis. ß-actin levels, which were unchanged in all microarray analyses (data not shown), controlled for equal amounts of input cDNA in both assays. The same picture was observed when we analyzed levels of selected transcripts by RT-PCR in a second stable hUPF2-silenced clone (H2KD clone no. 3) and in HeLa cells transiently transfected with a synthetic hUPF2 siRNA (data not shown). The target sequence of the synthetic hUPF2 siRNA differs from that used in stably silenced H2KD cells, thereby reducing the likelihood that the siRNA acts on other transcripts and that the observed effects are therefore indirect. The effect of hUPF2 siRNA was specific, since transiently transfected siRNA against lamin A/C did not affect levels of selected transcripts that were either down- or up-regulated in HeLa cells transiently transfected with hUPF2 siRNA (data not shown).
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Sequence analyses revealed that about 60% of the up-regulated transcripts (21/37) are classical mammalian NMD substrates (Table 2) since they are encoded by genes that could generate mRNAs with an open reading frame (ORF) terminating more than 55 nt upstream of an exon-exon junction (55-nt rule) (50). For example, visual inspection of available 5' untranslated regions (UTRs) detected that about one-third of the up-regulated transcripts (13/37) have up to eight AUGs upstream of the physiologic start codon. Accordingly, these transcripts contain at least an out-of-frame upstream open reading frame (uORF) (Fig. 6C) and thus a bona fide PTC. Further, browsing Celera's annotated human genome with gene symbol entries revealed that two of the up-regulated transcripts are encoded by genes in which the authentic termination codon is located in the penultimate exon more than 55 nt upstream of an intron (Fig. 6C, downstream intron). This should result in a classical NMD substrate with an exon-exon junction 55 nt downstream of the authentic termination codon. Finally, comparison of up-regulated transcript sequences with sequences in the recently assembled RUST database containing alternative splice forms with NMD features (38) revealed that one-fifth of our up-regulated transcripts (7/37) are encoded by genes bearing a functional alternative exon that, when either omitted from or spliced into a transcript, generates a PTC at least 55 nt upstream of an exon-exon junction (Fig. 6C, PTC through alternative splicing). A similar search against Celera's annotated human genome identified the BAG1 gene, which encodes an antiapoptotic factor (63) and contains a uORF (Table 2), as a candidate that could also give rise to a PTC-bearing alternatively spliced transcript.
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To investigate the extent of TfR2 PTC isoforms in HeLa cells by RT-PCR, we designed PCR primers to amplify fragments spanning exons 6 to 18, since PTC-containing alternatively or incorrectly spliced TfR2 transcripts lacking exons in this region are described in the Expressed Sequence Tags as well as Celera's annotated human genome database. Besides the expected and correctly spliced 1,436-nt fragment (Fig. 7A, band A), additional smaller bands could be detected by ethidium bromide (EtBr) staining. To reveal their identity, EtBr-stained bands A to F were individually excised from both lanes of the agarose gel, eluted, ligated into a TA cloning vector, and subjected to DNA sequencing. This analysis revealed a surprisingly diverse repertoire of TfR2 nonsense splice isoforms. Only 4 of the 17 different splice variants identified in this study represent a TfR2 isoform without a PTC (A1, B1, C1, and E2; schematically shown in Fig. 7B). Many are alternatively or maybe incorrectly spliced TfR2 isoforms that skipped exons 7 and 8 (B2, C2, D1, D3 to D5, E1, E3, E4, and F1 to F3), thereby generating a PTC in exon 10 (B2, C2, D4, E1, and F2) and, if exon 10 is additionally omitted, in exon 11 (D1, D3, D5, E3, E4, F1, and F3). In addition, exon 12 (F1) and exons 16 and 17 (C1, E2, F2, and F3) can also be alternatively spliced. We also detected nonsense transcripts that either retained the entire intron between exons 12 and 13 (D1) or between exons 15 and 16 (B2, D3, and D5) or retained part of the intron between exons 8 and 9 (D2). Finally, alternative splice acceptor sites in exons 10 (D4), 12 (D5 and E4), and 16 (E1) as well as an alternative splice donor site in exon 10 (E1) were utilized. It should also be mentioned that all of our sequenced transcripts contained exons 13 and 14 with splice acceptor and donor usage sites as predicted by the GenBank entry (accession no. NM_003227), which clearly contradicts the splice acceptor and donor usage sites of these exons listed in Ensembl (gene identification no. ENSG00000106327).
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In summary, alternative incorrect or incomplete splicing of primary TfR2 transcripts leads to bona fide NMD substrates, which accumulate if the NMD pathway is impaired. These findings could provide another example of a functional gene whose expression is regulated by RUST and therefore by NMD. Whether the retention of introns or the usage of alternative splice sites in TfR2 pre-mRNA is part of a regulatory loop or represents a measure of incomplete or incorrect splicing is not known.
Comparative transcriptome analyses in hUPF2- and hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells. A genome-wide microarray analysis was recently performed by Mendell and coworkers with transiently hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells (47). When we compared the 37 transcripts up-regulated in our stably hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells with the 197 transcripts up-regulated in hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells (47), only 4 transcripts (DSIPI, SLIT2, BAG1, and DSCR1) were up-regulated more than twofold in both our hUPF2-silenced and in Mendell's hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells (see Table S2 in the supplemental material).
To address the question of whether the 33 remaining transcripts up-regulated in our hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells could at all be detected with the microarray chip used in the study by Mendell et al., we compared signals of genes up-regulated in stably hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells (this study) with signals obtained for corresponding genes in hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells (47). This comparative analysis revealed that nine of the hUPF2-controlled transcripts could not be detected in the study by Mendell et al. since the corresponding DNA oligonucleotide probes were not spotted on the microarray chip. Signals for four transcripts were decreased less than twofold, and one transcript did not change in the microarray analysis by Mendell et al. More interestingly, signals for 19 transcripts up-regulated in our hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells could not be detected in the microarray data set of the study by Mendell et al., although the corresponding oligonucleotide probes were spotted on the microarray chip. Thus, 19 of our 33 hUPF2 regulated transcripts could be putative hUPF2-specific targets.
Inversely, when we compared signals of the 197 genes up-regulated in hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells (47) with signals obtained for corresponding genes in our hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells, we found that oligonucleotides for 22 of the hUPF1-controlled transcripts were not spotted on our microarray chip. Further, signals for 45 transcripts were decreased (but only 3 by more than twofold), and signals for 92 mRNAs were increased (but only 4 by more than twofold) in our microarray data set. Since we considered in our screen only transcripts that increased more than twofold, we identified by comparative analysis of our microarray data set and that from the study by Mendell et al. only four transcripts (SLIT2, BAG-1, DSCR1, and DSIPI) that are susceptible to both hUPF1 and hUPF2 knockdowns. We also identified 38 transcripts that were up-regulated in the Mendell group's microarray data set with RNA from hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells but did not give a signal in our microarray analysis despite the fact that the corresponding DNA oligonucleotides were included on our microarray chip. These results show that most transcripts susceptible to an hUPF1 knockdown are not targeted equally as well as NMD substrates in stably hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells and suggest the possibility of hUPF1- and hUPF2-specific NMD complexes with only a partial target overlap.
Differences in the pattern of NMD targets in hUPF2-silenced (this study) and hUPF1-silenced (47) HeLa cells could however be attributed to the use of different transfection strategies (stable versus transient) and/or to clonal differences of the HeLa line used in the two studies. To exclude these trivial explanations and to confirm that hUPF2-regulated transcripts are not affected by an hUPF1 knockdown, we transiently silenced hUPF1 and hUPF2 along with lamin A/C as a negative control with siRNA in our HeLa cells and quantified the effect of the knockdowns on levels of two hUPF2-regulated transcripts (Fig. 6B, CACNB2 and FLJ22655). We also included in our analysis BAG1, which is up-regulated after hUPF1 (47) and hUPF2 (microarray data from our study) knockdowns, and hSMG-5, which is up-regulated after hUPF1 knockdown (47) but does not change after hUPF2 knockdown in our HeLa cells (microarray data from our study). Western blot analysis of serially diluted cellular lysates 48 h after transfection of siRNA revealed the successful down-regulation of hUPF2, hUPF1, and lamin A/C (Fig. 8A). More importantly, qRT-PCR analysis confirmed our microarray data (see Table S2 in the supplemental material) (Fig. 6B) and that of Mendell et al. (see Table S2 in the supplemental material) (47), i.e., CACNB2 and FLJ22655 levels are affected only by an hUPF2 but not by an hUPF1 knockdown, while signals for the positive control BAG1 increased in both hUPF1- and hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells 4.0- and 2.9-fold, respectively (Fig. 8B). Conversely, hSMG-5, a putative hUPF1-specific target, was affected only by an hUPF1 but not by an hUPF2 knockdown (Fig. 8B).
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DISCUSSION |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Genome-wide transcriptome analysis in NMD-impaired human cells. At the beginning of our studies, a genome-wide and systematic analysis of endogenous transcripts regulated by mammalian NMD had not yet been performed. We therefore performed microarray analyses with WT and hUPF2-silenced human HeLa cells and found that about 3.9% of the approximately 2,400 detected transcripts of the Affymetrix HG-U133A chip changed their abundance in hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells (see Table S1 in the supplemental material). The changes in transcript levels in hUPF2-silenced H2KD cells are specific for hUPF2 silencing, since transient RNA interference in HeLa cells employing an hUPF2-specific siRNA with a sequence different from that expressed from the pSUPER vector confirmed the up- and down-regulation of selected transcripts observed in our DNA chip experiments. As expected for a negative control, transfection with lamin A/C siRNA had no effect on selected transcripts that were changed in HeLa cells transiently transfected with hUPF2 siRNA (data not shown). Hence, we conclude that the differences in mRNA abundance observed in our microarray experiments are specific for hUPF2.
We detected 37 up-regulated transcripts but also an almost equal number of down-regulated genes (see Table S1 in the supplemental material). Similar results have been published by Mendell and coworkers for HeLa cells transiently silenced with hUPF1 siRNA (47). Both of these findings are in contrast to expression profiles in NMD-deficient yeast strains, which revealed that more than 95% of the NMD substrates are up-regulated (21, 37). One way to explain the high number of down-regulated transcripts in NMD-silenced mammalian cells is that the expression levels of some mRNAs encoding transcriptional silencers or mRNA destabilizers are controlled by RUST, a mechanism that has been described only for C. elegans and mammals but not for yeast (48, 62, 69). In support of this, transcripts for putative RNA binding proteins (KHDRBS3) and factors that directly or indirectly control gene expression (DSCR1, TNFRSF11B, BMP5, and TNFAIP3) are up-regulated in hUPF2-silenced cells, and several transcripts encoding transcription factors were detected in hUPF1-silenced cells (47). Further, NMD-affected transcription factors in yeast have been described previously (28). A selection of down-regulated transcripts in H2KD cells along with their biological roles is shown in Table 3.
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We also identified eight genes that encode differentially spliced nonsense transcripts and could therefore be controlled by RUST. As expected for a RUST candidate, we indeed detected multiple differentially spliced nonsense TfR2 transcripts (Fig. 7A and B) and verified the increase in the abundance of one of the nonsense isoforms in H2KD cells (Fig. 7C). However, whether the eight transcripts are true RUST substrates requires further investigation.
Differences in hUPF1 und hUPF2 substrate specificity. Although about half of the up-regulated transcripts identified in hUPF2-silenced as well as in hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells (47) match one of three classes of NMD substrates (Table 2), there are three important differences between our study and that of Mendell and coworkers. First, only 4 (DSIPI, SLIT2, BAG1, and DSCR1) of our 37 up-regulated transcripts were also up-regulated in hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells, 2 of which (BAG1 and DSCR1) carry known NMD features (Table 2); second, about 2.5 times more potential NMD targets were identified in the screen by Mendell et al. (9.3% compared to 3.9%). And third, comparison of transcripts up-regulated in our hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells to those in the microarray data set of Mendell et al. (see Table S2 in the supplemental material) (47) and comparison of transcripts up-regulated in hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells of Mendell et al. to those in our microarray data set (see Table S2 in the supplemental material) identified 19 transcripts that were up-regulated at least twofold in only our hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells and 38 transcripts up-regulated in only hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells of Mendell et al. (47).
Therefore, it seems as if the majority of transcripts up-regulated under our conditions in stable hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells are regulated only by hUPF2 but not by hUPF1, suggesting the existence of hUPF1- and hUPF2-specific NMD complexes with minimal overlapping substrate specificity.
Support for this hypothesis comes first from our finding that levels of two of our hUPF2-regulated transcripts (Fig. 6B, CACNB2 and FLJ22655) are affected only by an hUPF2 knockdown and not by an hUPF1 knockdown (Fig. 8B). Since we used the same HeLa line for these experiments, we can exclude experimental variations and clonal differences.
The lower numbers of hUPF2 targets might be due to the fact that we used more stringent parameters. For example, changing the P values from 0.001 in our study to, e.g., 0.05 would in fact lead to an increase in differently expressed messages. The numbers of regulated transcripts in our study, however, would still be well below the numbers observed in hUPF1-silenced HeLa cells. In addition, while Mendell et al. used a cutoff of 1.9-fold and repeated their microarrays only twice, we considered as putative hUPF2 targets only mRNAs that were at least 2-fold regulated in three independent microarray experiments. Further, Mendell et al. used a different microarray chip. Due to the dynamic nature of public databases, probe sets for these sequences will not be identical and in some cases will be represented by a completely new probe set. As a result, data generated with different versions of human arrays may not produce concordant results. Lastly, these analyses were done in different laboratories, which might account for some of the differences observed between our study and that of Mendell and coworkers.
Effect of hUPF2 silencing on cell growth. The second interesting and surprising finding of our study is that stably hUPF2-silenced HeLa clones could easily be established and cultured for several months without gross differences in survival and growth rate (Fig. 6). Therefore, hUPF2 does not seem to be essential for growth of tumor lines. However, residual amounts of hUPF2 could be sufficient for viability, and perhaps a complete hUPF2 knockout would have a more severe phenotype. On the one hand, this was not surprising since the deletion of any of the hUPF orthologs in yeast and C. elegans had only a minor effect on overall growth and development (1, 23). In contrast, homozygous deletion of mUPF1/rent1 in the mouse genome leads to an embryonic lethal phenotype at a very early stage and to apoptosis of cultured mUPF1/rent1–/– blastocysts (44). Similarly, stable hUPF1-deficient lines by either shRNA-mediated silencing in HeLa cells or inactivation of hUPF1 through a classical homologous recombination in the chicken line DT40 could not be established (J. Wittmann, M. Selg, D. Fuchs, and H.-M. Jäck, unpublished data). Therefore, hUPF1 might have functions different from those of hUPF2. For example, yeast Upf1p is involved in translational termination (67), and hUPF1 is required for skipping of PTC-containing exons in human cells (46). Further, hUPF1 could modulate replication/transcription processes since it copurifies with DNA polymerase delta (10). Finally, hUPF1 could play additional roles in splicing, intracellular transport, polarization, and stabilization of certain mRNAs. In support of this idea, Staufen1, a protein involved in RNA localization, has been identified as an hUPF1 interaction partner and recruits hUPF1 to the 3' UTRs of certain mRNAs, which then elicits mRNA decay (30). In addition, a yeast two-hybrid screen with hUPF1 identified p32 (J. Strande, M. Selg, and H.-M. Jäck, unpublished data), a factor tightly associated with the splicing factor ASF/SF2 (31).
Effect of hUPF2 silencing on hUPF1 phosphorylation. The third interesting and novel finding is that hUPF2 silencing negatively affects the phosphorylation of hUPF1 (Fig. 4). Phosphorylation of the RNA helicase hUPF1 as well as its C. elegans ortholog SMG-2 is controlled by the cooperative action of the Ser/Thr kinase hSMG-1 and a phosphatase complex consisting of hSMG-5 and -7 and the protein phosphatase 2A (2, 51). hUPF2 could regulate phosphorylation of hUPF1 by either directly controlling the hSMG-1 kinase, stabilizing phosphorylated hUPF1, or preventing the association of hUPF1 with the phosphatase complex. Indeed, tandem affinity purification and gel filtration studies identified two hUPF1-containing multimeric complexes: one consists of hUPF1, hUPF2, and the long isoform of hUPF3a, whereas the other lacks hUPF2 and the long isoform of hUPF3a but contains hUPF1 and the short isoform of hUPF3a (51, 57). Therefore, hUPF2 might reduce nonsense mRNA levels indirectly by modulating hUPF1 activity via phosphorylation rather than acting directly on nonsense mRNA. Since some hUPF1 is still phosphorylated in hUPF2-silenced HeLa cells, hUPF1 should be enzymatically active. However, hypophosphorylation could have changed hUPF1's activity and substrate specificity, which could explain the qualitative and quantitative differences observed between expression profiles of hUPF2-silenced (this study) and hUPF1-silenced (47) HeLa cells. hUPF2 very likely does not control phosphorylation of hUPF1 by affecting expression of hSMG-5 and hSMG-6 since, in contrast to hUPF1 silencing (47), a stable hUPF2 knockdown by RNAi has no effect on hSMG-5 and hSMG-6 mRNA levels (data not shown). In summary, we showed that hUPF2 directly or indirectly controls phosphorylation of hUPF1 and provided first evidence that hUPF1- and hUPF2-specific NMD complexes with overlapping and different substrate profiles might exist. Based on our findings and those of Mendell et al. (47), we suggest that NMD is important not only for removing aberrant mRNA but also for posttranscriptional regulation of a selected pool of genes.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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We thank Reuven Agami for providing pSUPER; Andreas Kulozik for ß-globin WT and nonsense (PTC) constructs; Joachim Lingner and Claus Azzalin for pSUPER-E8 and -E10; Ludger Klein-Hitpass for performing DNA microarray experiments; Brett Lane for help in preparing hUPF2 antibodies; Anja Haude and Edith Roth for technical assistance; and Harald Bradl, Dirk Mielenz, Johannes Lutz, and Christian Vettermann for comments on the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Supplemental material for this article may be found at http://mcb.asm.org/.
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