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Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030,1 Institute of Bioscience and Technology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, 2121 W. Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, Texas 77030,2 Graduate Program in Cardiovascular Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030,3 Departments of Molecular Biology and Pathology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 753904
Received 29 June 2006/ Returned for modification 24 July 2006/ Accepted 16 October 2006
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ABSTRACT |
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-actin and -myosin heavy chain, in an SRF-dependent manner in 10T1/2 fibroblasts, but only in the presence of coexpressed SUMO-1/PIAS1. Thus, SUMO modification acted as a molecular switch to promote myocardin's role in cardiogenic gene expression. |
INTRODUCTION |
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KXE ( stands for a bulky hydrophobic amino acid, and X represents any residue) (37, 47). Some targets are involved with gene regulation, such as the coactivator P300 (14), the corepressor CtBP (32), and other transcription factors (38). SUMOs govern transcription target activity by altering DNA binding activity, subcellular localization, and/or protein stability. In contrast to what is seen for invertebrates, which have only one SUMO gene, at least four members of the SUMO gene family have been identified in vertebrates (7, 13, 16, 25). SUMO-1 has about 50% homology to SUMO-2, -3, and -4. These SUMO members exert preferential target activities. For instance, SUMO modulation of RanGAP1 was favored by SUMO-1 but poorly modified by SUMO-2/-3 (49), while SUMO-2/-3 became highly active upon oxidative stress but SUMO-1 did not (49); thus, distinct roles for SUMO members under physiological and pathological states are exhibited. SUMO conjugation is part of an enzymatic cascade basically involving two enzymes, heterodimer E1-activating enzyme (SAE1/2) and E2-conjugating enzyme (Ubc9). Unlike ubiquitination, some sumoylation assays revealed that in the presence of E1 and E2, the E3 ligase was dispensable to accomplish SUMO conjugation. However, SUMO E3 ligases, such as PIAS1, contributed to the efficiency and specificity of SUMO conjugation (29, 57) and were attributed to the RING domain, which is similar to the corresponding structure in E3 ligases involved in the ubiquitination. The following three distinct classes of E3 ligase have been revealed: (i) the PIAS family (19), whose members, in addition to having their E3 ligase activity, may influence targets independently of sumoylation, as shown by PIAS1 and PIASy (11, 15); (ii) RanBP2, which is involved in nuclear transport (44); and (iii) polycomb protein 2, which is involved in gene repression (20).
Myocardin and its other related proteins, MRTF-A and MRTF-B (56), belong to a SAP superfamily (SAF-A/B, Acinus, and PIAS) harboring the chromatin-remodeling SAP domain (1). Myocardin expressed in embryonic heart and vascular smooth muscle cells was identified as a serum response factor (SRF) coactivator that triggers an SRF-dependent smooth muscle differentiation program (12, 55). Other cofactors, such as GATA4 and p300, also enhanced myocardin activity (4, 43). Inactivation of myocardin revealed a severe disruption of vascular smooth muscle development (28), demonstrating its indispensability in vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation. Myocardin has been shown to be important for normal heart development in Xenopus embryos (53, 55). On occasion, the forced expression of myocardin was able to induce the expression of some cardiac muscle-specified genes in cell lines such as human mesenchymal stem cells, foreskin fibroblasts, and L6 myoblasts (8, 54, 59). However, myocardin was not sufficient to activate cardiogenic genes in pluripotent 10T1/2 fibroblast cells (28, 58).
Recently, we reported that SUMO modification of GATA4 activated several cardiac muscle-restricted genes in 10T1/2 fibroblasts (57). In addition, SRF, a chief coaccessory factor of myocardin and GATA4, was shown to be a SUMO target (36). Since myocardin, SRF, and GATA factors are cointeractive and enriched in the heart, we asked if myocardin might also be a SUMO target. In fact, bioinformatics revealed a potential SUMO modification consensus sequence in myocardin. We then asked whether myocardin could be sumoylated and if so what the consequence for myocardin's activity would be. Here, we provide evidence that myocardin is a target for sumoylation which can be facilitated by the E3 ligase PIAS1 not only in 10T1/2 cells but also in other noncardiogenic cell types. In addition, SUMO-conjugated myocardin switched on cardiogenic gene activity in pluripotent 10T1/2 fibroblasts in an SRF-dependent fashion.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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-actin promoter-driven luciferase reporters and promoter mutants was described previously (50). The construction of SUMO-1 and its defective C-terminal deletion mutant SUMO-1
GG was previously detailed (57). The wild-type myocardin expression vector and its insert was amplified by PCR and then ligated into the pcDNA4A-V5/(His)6 vector at the EcoRV and HindIII cleavage sites. A myocardin mutant was generated by conversion of amino acid (aa) 445 lysine to an arginine by a two-step PCR mutagenesis protocol, with oligonucleotide primers overlapping the lysine 445 mutation and terminal cDNA sequences, as described previously (57). The myocardin cDNA was inserted into pcDNA4A-V5/(His)6 and verified by sequencing DNA inserts. Glutathione S-transferase (GST)-fused myocardin was produced by the insertion of the myocardin cDNA into SmaI and NotI sites of pGEX4T-2. Plasmids for wild-type Ubc9 and its dominant negative (d/n) form, C93R/L97A, were obtained from K. Tashiro (52) and cloned into the expression vector pcDNA3.1. All other mammalian expression plasmids for deletion mutants of PIAS1 and myocardin were previously described (29, 55). Cell culture, transfection, and trans-differentiation assays. Transient transfections with plasmid-based expression vectors into tissue-cultured CV1 and/or HeLa cells and reporter gene assays were previously described (5, 57). Promoter activity was expressed as the ratio of luciferase reporter activity induced by coexpression of a specific factor(s) to that of the controls, represented by the expressions of empty vector. Data are expressed as the means ± standard deviations of the means from at least two independent assays, with each assay carried out in duplicate. Pluripotent 10T1/2 fibroblasts were maintained at low density (<30%) in 10% fetal bovine serum plus Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium prior to transfection, and conditions for transfections in 10T1/2 cells followed by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) were detailed previously (57). The sequences of all specific primers used in RT-PCR assays are available upon request.
Sumoylation assays and Ni-NTA pulldown assays. Sumoylation assays in vivo were detailed previously (57). Nickel affinity chromatography was performed according to the protocol described previously (31). Briefly, the vector encoding wild-type V5-His6-tagged myocardin was transfected into HeLa cells in the absence or presence of the SUMO-1 expression vector. After 48 h, HeLa cells were then lysed and sonicated in 6 M guanidine buffer, and six-His-tagged myocardin was immobilized on Ni-nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) beads (QIAGEN), eluted by elution buffer (200 mM imidazole, 5% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 0.15 M Tris [pH 6.7], 30% glycerol, 0.72 M ß-mercaptoethanol). Western blots were used to analyze the eluted proteins by using anti-V5 antibody to reveal the presence of myocardin. Anti-SUMO-1 antibody was used to detect SUMO-1-conjugated myocardin. All proteins were visualized by use of the SuperSignal West Pico chemiluminescent substrate from Pierce (Rockford, IL).
Coimmunoprecipitation and GST pulldown assays. Plasmid-based expression vectors encoding V5-tagged myocardin and hemagglutinin (HA)-tagged PIAS1 were cotransfected into CV1 cells. Lysates were collected 48 h posttransfection, and HA antibody was used to precipitate HA-PIAS1. The resulting mixture was washed, subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane, first revealed by V5 antibody to visualize V5 epitoped myocardin, and then striped and reprobed with HA antibody to visualize HA epitoped PIAS1. The GST pulldown assay was detailed previously (5).
Immunobiochemistry.
Immunostaining of transfected fibroblasts was performed as described previously (57). Briefly, transfected 10T1/2 cells were fixed and then probed with MF20 anti-sarcomeric -myosin heavy chain (-MHC) antibody from Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA) and anti-V5 antibody from Bethyl Laboratories (Montgomery, TX) followed by green- and red-labeled secondary antibodies from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR), respectively. DAPI (4',6'-diamidino-2-phenylindole) was used to stain nuclei.
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RESULTS |
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GG (Fig. 1A). To determine if the slower-migrating species was a SUMO-1 conjugate, cellularly expressed V5-His6-myocardin was retrieved by nickel affinity chromatography, as shown by anti-V5 blotting (Fig. 1B, upper panel) and also by use of anti-SUMO-1 antibody (Fig. 1B, lower panel). SUMO-1 antibody identified a single band that reacted with both anti-V5-His6-myocardin and anti-Flag-SUMO-1. Similarly, myocardin sumoylation by SUMO-1 in vivo was observed for CV1 and 10T1/2 cells (data not shown). Thus, SUMO-1 was conjugated to V5-His6-myocardin. Similarly, myocardin was SUMO modified in vitro in the presence of SAE1/2, Ubc9, and SUMO-1 (data not shown). Taken together, these data demonstrated that myocardin is a de novo SUMO-1 substrate.
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-actin promoter activation (Fig. 1C). Similar observations were made for transfected HeLa and 10T1/2 cells (data not shown). Substitution of SUMO-1 by SUMO-1GG reached only 41% of the full promoter activation that was achieved with wild-type SUMO-1 (Fig. 1D), thus implicating SUMO-1 conjugation in the regulation of myocardin activity. To further explore the involvement of the sumoylation pathway in the modulation of myocardin activity, we evaluated the role of Ubc9, the only known E2 SUMO ligase, and its d/n form (C93R/L97A), which cannot transfer SUMO-1 (52). Expressed wild-type Ubc9 enhanced myocardin sumoylation, as shown by the appearance of an additional slower-migrating band, while d/n Ubc9 reduced sumoylation, as shown in Fig. 1E (upper panel, compare lanes 5 and 6 with lane 2). The potentiation or reduction of myocardin sumoylation led by Ubc9 or by C93R/L97A correlated well with myocardin transcription activity, as reflected by promoter reporter assays. In comparison to the robust promoter activity stimulated by the cotransfections with myocardin and SUMO-1 expression vectors, the addition of wild-type Ubc9 further increased promoter activity by 
2-fold, whereas d/n Ubc9 decreased activity by 40 to 50%, as shown in Fig. 1F. Collectively, data from transfected CV1 and a variety of other cell types indicated that myocardin activity was modulated by the SUMO conjugation pathway.
Lysine 445, the principal sumoylation site.
Consensus sumoylation sites usually contain a target lysine within the sequence KXE (47). Informatics directed our attention to lysine 445 present within the sequence IKQE of myocardin, which is conserved across species (Fig. 2A). The site-directed mutant in which lysine 445 was converted to arginine (the K445R mutant) blocked SUMO conjugation of myocardin (Fig. 2B) and blocked approximately 70% of myocardin's transcription activity in the presence of SUMO-1 (Fig. 2C and D). Therefore, lysine 445 was the primary sumoylation site in myocardin and contributed to myocardin transcription activity.
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GG (lane 4) or the PIAS1 RING mutant (lane 5). Nickel-NTA pulldown followed by protein blotting confirmed that the additional protein species induced by PIAS1 was SUMO-1-conjugated myocardin, since it was detected by both anti-V5 and anti-SUMO-1 antibodies (Fig. 3B). Although the K445R mutation blocked myocardin sumoylation in the presence of SUMO-1, it was unable to totally abolish myocardin sumoylation that was enhanced by PIAS1 (Fig. 3C, compare lanes 3 and 4). Interestingly, PIAS1 alone was able to promote myocardin sumoylation (Fig. 3D). Thus, PIAS1 stimulated myocardin sumoylation via its RING domain and also promoted sumoylation at a nonconsensus SUMO conjugation site(s).
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-actin and cardiac -MHC gene activity when cotransfected with SUMO-1 and/or PIAS1 (Fig. 4A, lanes 4, 5, and 6). In contrast, neither the expression vectors driving the K445R myocardin mutant together with SUMO-1 nor myocardin together with SUMO-1GG was capable of triggering cardiac gene activation (Fig. 4A, lanes 8 and 9). Interestingly, the K445R mutant together with PIAS1 in the presence or absence of SUMO-1 was still able to induce cardiac -actin expression, although at a reduced level (Fig. 4A, lanes 10 and 11), but the K445R mutant only along with PIAS1 and SUMO-1 modulated cardiac -MHC gene activity, suggesting an intricate mechanism for regulating myocardin's ability to stimulate cardiac muscle-specified genes and revealing critical roles of both lysine 445 and a yet-to-be-identified atypical sumoylation site(s). Also, it is noteworthy that the K445R mutant was equivalent to the wild-type myocardin with regard to the induction of smooth muscle differentiation (smooth muscle calponin expression) in 10T1/2 cells (Fig. 4A, compare lanes 3 and 7). Furthermore, sarcomeric -MHC gene expression, induced by myocardin via SUMO-1/PIAS1 in 10T1/2 fibroblasts, was confirmed by MF20 immunostaining, which specifically detected sarcomeric -MHC (Fig. 4B). Thus, sumoylation acted as a molecular switch to convert myocardin into a potent transactivator of cardiac gene expression.
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-actin and -MHC expression in that the PIAS1 mutant with a deletion of aa 1 to 480 possessed both E3 ligase activity and the interactive region which bound myocardin. Other PIAS1 deletion mutants failed to empower myocardin to trigger cardiogenic gene expression (Fig. 5E). Collectively, these data demonstrated that both the RING domain and the N terminus of PIAS1 were indispensable for PIAS1 to switch on cardiac gene activity through myocardin.
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-actin promoter activation induced by cotransfected myocardin, SUMO-1, and PIAS1 by 90%, and the other mutated SREs (SRE2M, SRE3M, and SRE4M) also inhibited cardiac -actin promoter activity, but to different degrees (Fig. 6A). A dominant negative SRFC protein (6) depressed promoter activity by myocardin, SUMO-1, and PIAS1 (Fig. 6B) and abrogated the induction of both cardiac -MHC and cardiac -actin in 10T1/2 cells (Fig. 6C, compare lanes 3 and 4). In addition, myocardin interacted with SRF via its N terminus (55), and a GST pulldown assay confirmed that the K445 myocardin mutant still retained physical association with SRF (Fig. 6D). Thus, SUMO-1 modification strongly potentiated the activity of myocardin but did not alter its SRF-dependent properties.
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-actin promoter activity in the presence of SUMO-2/-3 by only 50% of that in the presence of SUMO-1 (Fig. 7B). Thus, SUMO isotypes differentially modulated myocardin activity, and the E3 ligase, PIAS1, favored SUMO-1 over SUMO-2 or -3.
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DISCUSSION |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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-actin and cardiac -MHC) in these pluripotent fibroblasts via SUMO modification. We noticed that SUMO-1GG still exhibited some positive effect on myocardin activity in transactivation assays, which was consistent with the findings that SUMO-1 may perform its role independent of its conjugation competency (27). However, the positive effect of SUMO-1GG on myocardin was not sufficient to initiate a cardiac differentiation program, indicating the pivotal role of SUMO linkage in the induction of this cardiac muscle-specific gene. SUMO-1 up-regulated myocardin activity primarily through modifying lysine 445 in the absence of E3 ligase. It appeared that K445 is the primary regulatory site that directed cardiogenic gene activity, which did not significantly alter smooth muscle cell-specified gene induction (Fig. 4A). The mutation of K445 did not affect myocardin nuclear localization or its physical interaction with SRF (Fig. 6D and data not shown), consistent with the report that the nuclear occupancy of MRTF-A, as well as its association with SRF, was not influenced by its sumoylation site mutation (40). However, in contrast to our findings, MRTF-A transcriptional activity was suppressed by SUMO modification. The possible explanations for these different observations are as follows: (i) although these two proteins share some close homology, they may not be equivalent and able to substitute for each other; (ii) they exhibit different specificities in tissue distributions (56), which might suggest different biological roles; and/or (iii) the functional consequence of sumoylation on its targets may be context dependent (17). We also noted that the downstream reporters employed for SUMO-regulated MRTF-A and myocardin were also different, which may also contribute to the dissimilar functions. The fact that cardiac gene induction by myocardin/SUMO-1/PIAS1 was hindered by a dominant negative form of SRF also suggested that SUMO-1 conjugation did not change the functional dependence of myocardin upon SRF.
Myocardin was targeted well by SUMO-1 and to a lesser extent by SUMO-2/-3 (Fig. 7). Correspondingly, SUMO-2/-3 was less effective than SUMO-1 in stimulating cardiac -actin promoter activity. SUMO-1 also appeared to have a preferred role in directing myocardin cardiogenic activity. Saitoh and Hinchey (49) reported that the free pool of unconjugated SUMO-2/-3 was much greater than that of SUMO-1 under normal physiological conditions but that this changed dramatically under conditions of stress, which may relate to the preferential usage of these isotypes under altered physiological states. For example, the expression of SUMO-1 was also shown to be increased in response to hypoxia in the heart (51), a condition which activates HIF1-dependent pathways (9). It remains to be determined how the myocardin activity is modulated by other SUMO isotypes under pathological conditions.
PIAS1, a potent myocardin coactivator of cardiogenic genes.
PIAS family proteins, represented by five different members, i.e., PIAS1, PIAS3, PIASx, PIASxß, and PIASy, were shown to inhibit STATs via various mechanisms (2, 10, 33, 34). Recently, PIAS proteins were shown to be implicated in the modulation of the transcriptional activities of a multitude of transcription factors via protein-protein interaction and/or SUMO E3 ligase activity that facilitates SUMO attachment to the substrates (24, 35). PIAS1 may stimulate sumoylation reaction as follows: (i) by enhancing the sumoylation on the existing major sumoylation sites in target proteins; (ii) by promoting the formation of a SUMO chain on the existing major sumoylation site; and/or (iii) by introducing a novel sumoylation site that is rarely detected in the absence of E3 ligase. PIAS1 enhanced GATA4 sumoylation on the typical SUMO attachment site (57), but as shown here, PIAS1-directed myocardin sumoylation led us to consider the presence of a nonconsensus sumoylation site(s) on myocardin. Like lysine 445, the atypical sumoylation site(s) also appeared to contribute to the regulatory role of myocardin in cardiogenic gene induction, since PIAS1 assisted wild-type myocardin and even the K445R myocardin mutant in triggering a portion of the cardiogenic differentiation program (Fig. 4A). The RING domain of PIAS1 appeared to be indispensable in this induction (Fig. 5E), thus indicating the critical role of E3 ligase activity. However, given the fact that PIAS1 is a cofactor for a variety of proteins and may even recruit a specific factor(s) to execute some special actions, such as directing smooth muscle cell differentiation in fibroblasts (22, 26, 34, 45), we cannot completely rule out the potential involvement of a PIAS1-recruited factor(s) in PIAS1-assisted cardiac differentiation in fibroblasts. Unexpectedly, Ubc9, the only E2 in the sumoylation pathway, also stimulated myocardin sumoylation, which was not abrogated by K445 mutation (Fig. 1F and data not shown). In addition, sumoylation E3 ligases exhibit substrate specificity. For instance, PIAS1 served as an E3 ligase upon p53 sumoylation (21), and RanBP2, another E3 ligase, was involved in the SUMO modification of SP100 and HDAC4 (23, 44). Our observation that PIAS1 acted as the E3 ligase for SUMO-1 but not for SUMO-2/-3 in the modification of myocardin indicated that E3 ligase was specific not only for substrates but also for the various SUMO isoforms.
Our data demonstrated that the physical association of PIAS1 with myocardin plays a vital role in governing myocardin cardiogenic activity. We speculated that mutual-factor interactions shared between PIAS1 and myocardin are among the earliest steps required for conjugating SUMO to myocardin. Our mapping association study revealed the importance of amino acid residues 385 to 586 of myocardin in the physical interaction with PIAS1. Indeed, conversion of lysine residue 445 to arginine weakened this association; however, the residual coassociation with PIAS1 was sufficient for the K445R myocardin mutant to trigger cardiac- actin expression in fibroblasts, albeit at a reduced level. Interestingly, K445R/PIAS1 was unable to induce cardiac -MHC expression unless SUMO-1 was present, again indicating the importance of lysine 445 and/or a nonconsensus sumoylation site(s) in directing cardiac -MHC gene activity.
Potential involvement of sumoylation in cardiogenesis. Reversible SUMO conjugation and deconjugation regulate the activities of a large pool of proteins controlling cellular proliferation and differentiation. For example, mice with knockdowns of sumoylation pathway components, such as Ubc9, died at the early embryonic postimplantation stage (18, 39). More recently, Ubc9 was shown to be required for myotube formation in C2C12 cells and pharyngeal muscle development in Caenorhabditis elegans (46, 48), thus implicating the sumoylation pathway in muscle development. We demonstrated that SUMO modification of GATA4 elicited cardiac muscle-specific gene expression (57), and myocardin sumoylation by SUMO-1/PIAS1 showed induced cardiogenic gene expression. Given the facts that transcription factors such as myocardin, SRF, and GATA4 are all SUMO targeted and physically interact with each other (3, 43, 55) and that all of them are crucial to heart development (30, 41, 42), these noteworthy findings point to the possibility that the sumoylation pathway may contribute significantly to heart development via the modification of heart-enriched transcription factors as well as cofactors.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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Published ahead of print on 13 November 2006.
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